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Semester 1: Chemistry of Biomolecules
Carbohydrates: Definition, biological importance, stereoisomerism, optical isomerism, Fischer and Haworth projection, cyclic structure, epimers, anomers, mutarotation
Carbohydrates
Definition
Carbohydrates are organic compounds comprised of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, generally with a hydrogen to oxygen ratio of 2:1. They are classified into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides based on the number of sugar units.
Biological Importance
Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source for organisms, providing fuel for cellular processes. They are also involved in cell recognition, signaling, and structural functions, forming important components in nucleotides, glycoproteins, and nucleic acids.
Stereoisomerism
Stereoisomerism in carbohydrates arises due to the presence of chiral centers in their structure. The different arrangements of atoms in space lead to varying isomers, which can have drastically different biological roles and properties.
Optical Isomerism
Optical isomerism is a type of stereoisomerism where isomers can rotate plane-polarized light in different directions. Carbohydrates often exist as D and L forms, which are enantiomers of each other.
Fischer Projection
The Fischer projection is a two-dimensional representation of three-dimensional organic molecules that simplifies the visualization of isomers. It displays the configuration of chiral centers in carbohydrates and allows for easy identification of D and L forms.
Haworth Projection
The Haworth projection represents cyclic forms of carbohydrates. It emphasizes the cyclic structure and provides clarity on the configuration of anomeric carbons. Haworth projections are commonly used to illustrate monosaccharides in their cyclic forms.
Cyclic Structure
Carbohydrates often exist in a cyclic structure due to intramolecular reactions between aldehyde or ketone groups and hydroxyl groups. These cyclic forms are more stable and are predominant in solution.
Epimers
Epimers are diastereomers that differ in configuration at only one specific chiral carbon. This subtle difference can lead to significant variations in properties and biological activity.
Anomers
Anomers are a subtype of epimers that differ in configuration specifically at the anomeric carbon, the carbon derived from the carbonyl carbon during the formation of a cyclic structure. Anomers can exist in alpha or beta forms.
Mutarotation
Mutarotation refers to the change in optical rotation due to the interconversion between different anomeric forms of a carbohydrate in solution. This phenomenon is especially notable in solutions of sugars, such as glucose, as they equilibrate between their alpha and beta forms.
Monosaccharides: Classification, structure, biological importance of hexose sugars, reactions of sugars
Monosaccharides: Classification, structure, biological importance of hexose sugars, reactions of sugars
Classification of Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are classified based on the number of carbon atoms and the functional groups they possess. The two main classifications are: 1. By the number of carbons: Triose (3), Tetrose (4), Pentose (5), Hexose (6), Heptose (7) and so on. 2. By functional groups: Aldoses (with an aldehyde group) and ketoses (with a ketone group).
Structure of Hexose Sugars
Hexose sugars, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose, have a six-carbon structure. They can exist in two forms: linear and cyclic. The cyclic form is more prevalent in aqueous solutions. Glucose can form a six-membered ring (pyranose), while fructose can form a five-membered ring (furanose). The configuration of the hydroxyl (OH) groups defines their stereochemistry.
Biological Importance of Hexose Sugars
Hexose sugars are vital for various biological processes. Glucose is a primary energy source for cells, playing a central role in metabolism. Galactose is essential in the synthesis of lactose, while fructose is important in the metabolism of carbohydrates. They also contribute to the structural components in nucleotides and glycoproteins.
Reactions of Sugars
Monosaccharides undergo several chemical reactions, including: 1. Reducing reactions: Sugars can act as reducing agents, participating in reactions with oxidizing agents. 2. Glycosidic bond formation: Monosaccharides can link together through glycosidic bonds to form disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. 3. Isomerization: Interconversion between different isomers, such as gluco and fructose, is common in sugar chemistry.
Disaccharides: Structure, occurrence, biological importance of sucrose, lactose, maltose
Disaccharides: Structure, occurrence, biological importance of sucrose, lactose, maltose
Structure of Disaccharides
Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharide units linked by a glycosidic bond. Common disaccharides are sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose + glucose). They can vary in structure based on the type of monosaccharides involved and the position of the glycosidic bond.
Occurrence of Disaccharides
Disaccharides are commonly found in nature. Sucrose is primarily found in sugarcane and sugar beet. Lactose is found in milk and dairy products. Maltose is present in malted foods and beverages, produced during the breakdown of starch.
Biological Importance of Sucrose
Sucrose is a major carbohydrate in the diet, providing energy. It is also important in plant metabolism, aiding in the transfer of energy and carbon between cells. Sucrose is used in food preservation due to its osmotic properties.
Biological Importance of Lactose
Lactose is a source of energy for infants. It aids in the absorption of calcium and other minerals in the intestine. Lactose intolerance occurs when individuals lack the enzyme lactase, leading to digestive issues.
Biological Importance of Maltose
Maltose is significant in the digestion of starch. It serves as an intermediate product in the process of starch hydrolysis and can be utilized by various organisms for energy.
Polysaccharides: Homopolysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, dextrin, inulin) and heteropolysaccharides (hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, heparin)
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides composed of only one type of monosaccharide unit.
A storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting of amylose and amylopectin.
Energy storage.
A branched polysaccharide made of glucose units, mainly stored in liver and muscle cells.
Primary energy storage molecule in animals.
Linear polysaccharide made of beta-glucose units; forms the structural component of plant cell walls.
Provides rigidity and support to plants.
A polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, forms the exoskeleton of arthropods.
Structural support in fungi and arthropods.
Intermediate polysaccharides formed during the hydrolysis of starch.
Used as a thickening agent and in food products.
A fructan composed of fructose units, found in many plants.
Serves as a storage carbohydrate and a source of dietary fiber.
Polysaccharides composed of two or more different types of monosaccharide units.
A glycosaminoglycan consisting of alternating units of glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine.
Provides lubrication and moisture retention in connective tissues.
A sulfated glycosaminoglycan derived from chondroitin, contains repeating disaccharide units.
Offers structural support and elasticity in cartilage.
An anticoagulant glycosaminoglycan composed of variably sulfated repeating disaccharide units.
Prevents blood clotting and acts as a modulator of various biological activities.
Artificial sweeteners: Saccharin and Monellin
Artificial sweeteners: Saccharin and Monellin
Introduction to Artificial Sweeteners
Artificial sweeteners are compounds designed to mimic the taste of sugar while providing little to no calories. They are used in a variety of food and beverage products.
Saccharin
Saccharin is one of the oldest artificial sweeteners discovered in the late 19th century. It is commonly used in soft drinks and as a tabletop sweetener. Structurally, it is a sulfonamide compound, which contributes to its sweet taste. Saccharin is approximately 300 to 400 times sweeter than sucrose.
Health Considerations of Saccharin
Historically, saccharin faced scrutiny due to studies linking it to cancer in lab animals. However, over the years, extensive research has led to the conclusion that saccharin is safe for human consumption, and it is approved by various health authorities, including the FDA.
Monellin
Monellin is a sweet protein found in the fruit of the Dioscorea villosa plant, also known as the 'wonder berry'. It is significantly sweeter than sucrose, estimated to be 1,000 to 3,000 times sweeter. Monellin's sweetness comes from its simple amino acid structure.
Uses of Monellin
Due to its high sweetness potency, monellin can be used in smaller quantities compared to traditional sugar. It has potential applications in low-calorie foods and beverages. However, its use is limited by stability factors, as it can lose its sweetness when exposed to heat or prolonged storage.
Comparative Analysis of Saccharin and Monellin
While both saccharin and monellin serve as sweetening agents, they differ in chemical structure and properties. Saccharin is synthetic, whereas monellin is naturally derived. Their sweetness levels, health impacts, and regulatory statuses also contrast, providing varied options for consumers looking for sugar alternatives.
Conclusion
Artificial sweeteners like saccharin and monellin play crucial roles in dietary management for individuals seeking to reduce sugar consumption. Understanding their properties, benefits, and potential health implications can aid consumers in making informed choices regarding sweeteners.
Amino acids: Definition, ampholytes, structure, classification, chemical reactions, essential and nonessential amino acids
Amino Acids
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Amino acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins. They contain an amine group, a carboxyl group, and a unique side chain or R group.
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Amino acids can act as ampholytes, which means they can function as both acids and bases depending on the pH of their environment. This property allows them to maintain the pH balance in biological systems.
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Each amino acid has a central carbon atom (alpha carbon) connected to four different functional groups: a hydrogen atom, an amine group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain (R group) that distinguishes one amino acid from another.
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Amino acids can be classified into essential and nonessential amino acids. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from the diet, while nonessential amino acids can be synthesized by the body.
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Amino acids participate in various chemical reactions, including peptide bond formation, which links amino acids together to form proteins. They can also undergo deamination, transamination, and other metabolic pathways.
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Essential amino acids include histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. These must be consumed through diet.
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Nonessential amino acids include alanine, aspartate, asparagine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine. The body can synthesize these amino acids.
Peptide bond: Structure, significance, amino acid sequencing methods (Sanger and Edman)
Peptide bond: Structure, significance, amino acid sequencing methods (Sanger and Edman)
Structure of Peptide Bonds
Peptide bonds are covalent bonds formed between amino acids during protein synthesis. A peptide bond forms when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another, releasing a molecule of water (condensation reaction). The resulting bond is planar and has a partial double bond character which restricts rotation, leading to specific angles of bond rotation.
Significance of Peptide Bonds
Peptide bonds are essential for the formation of proteins, which are critical for numerous biological functions including catalysis, structural support, and regulation. The nature of peptide bonds influences the protein's tertiary structure and ultimately its function. The stability of these bonds under physiological conditions is crucial for maintaining protein integrity.
Amino Acid Sequencing: Sanger Method
The Sanger method, also known as dideoxy sequencing, uses chain-terminating inhibitors (dideoxynucleotides) to determine the sequence of amino acids in a peptide. This method involves the fragmentation of the protein into smaller peptides, followed by the specific labeling of the fragments and their separation to identify the order of the amino acids.
Amino Acid Sequencing: Edman Degradation
Edman degradation is a method used for sequencing amino acids in a peptide. It involves sequentially removing one residue at a time from the amino end of the peptide. The removed amino acid is then identified by chromatography, allowing the determination of the amino acid sequence. This method is particularly useful for shorter peptides or when analyzing specific regions of a protein.
Protein structure: Levels of structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary), with examples and stabilizing forces
Protein structure
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Primary Structure
The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear sequence of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. This sequence dictates the protein's final structure and function. Example: Insulin, a hormone made of 51 amino acids.
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Secondary Structure
The secondary structure involves the local folding of the polypeptide chain into alpha-helices and beta-sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the backbone amide and carbonyl groups. Example: Keratin in hair and nails, which is rich in alpha-helices.
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Tertiary Structure
The tertiary structure is the three-dimensional shape of a single polypeptide chain, formed by interactions among R groups. Stabilizing forces include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bridges. Example: Myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscles.
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Quaternary Structure
The quaternary structure refers to the assembly of multiple polypeptide chains into a functional protein complex. Stabilizing forces are similar to those in tertiary structure. Example: Hemoglobin, composed of four polypeptide subunits, is vital for oxygen transport.
Lipids: Definition, classification, biological role, simple lipids properties, characterization of fats, hydrolysis, saponification, halogenation, acetyl number, rancidity, Reichert-Meissel number
Lipids
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Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic organic molecules, primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen, that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents. They include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
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Lipids can be classified into simple lipids, compound lipids, and derived lipids. Simple lipids include triglycerides and fatty acids. Compound lipids include phospholipids and glycolipids. Derived lipids include sterols and fat-soluble vitamins.
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Lipids play critical roles in biological systems, including energy storage, structural components of cell membranes, insulation, and signaling molecules. They are vital for maintaining cellular function.
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Simple lipids consist mainly of fatty acids and glycerol. They can be saturated or unsaturated and vary in chain length and degree of saturation, influencing their physical properties, such as melting point.
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Fats are characterized by their melting points, iodine values, and fatty acid composition. Techniques such as gas chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance are commonly used for characterization.
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Hydrolysis of lipids involves the breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids through the action of water and enzymes or acids. This process is essential for lipid digestion.
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Saponification is the process of making soap from fats and oils through hydrolysis in an alkaline solution. This reaction converts triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acid salts.
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Halogenation involves the addition of halogens to unsaturated fatty acids, resulting in the formation of halogenated lipids. This can affect the physical and chemical properties of the lipids.
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The acetyl number measures the amount of acetylated fatty acids in non-drying oils or fats, indicating their potential for polymerization and drying properties.
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Rancidity refers to the undesirable odors and flavors that develop in lipids due to the breakdown of fats, often caused by oxidation or hydrolysis. There are two types: oxidative rancidity and hydrolytic rancidity.
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The Reichert-Meissel number measures the quantity of water-soluble fatty acids in fats. It is used to assess the quality and purity of animal fats and oils.
Compound lipids: Structure and function of phospholipids and glycolipids
Compound lipids: Structure and function of phospholipids and glycolipids
Phospholipids
Phospholipids consist of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate group attached to a polar head. They are amphipathic molecules, meaning they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. This property allows phospholipids to form bilayers, which are essential for cellular membranes. The phosphate head can be modified to form different types of phospholipids, influencing membrane fluidity and functionality.
Functions of Phospholipids
Phospholipids play a crucial role in forming the cell membrane, which regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell. They also contribute to signal transduction pathways and serve as precursors for bioactive lipids. Additionally, phospholipids are involved in membrane fusion and intracellular transport.
Glycolipids
Glycolipids are composed of a glycerol or sphingosine backbone, one or more sugar molecules, and fatty acid chains. They are predominantly located in the outer leaflet of cell membranes. Glycolipids are important for cell recognition, signaling, and maintaining membrane stability.
Functions of Glycolipids
Glycolipids contribute to cell-cell interaction and communication. They play a significant role in the immune response by acting as antigens. Additionally, they are involved in the formation of lipid rafts, which are microdomains in the membrane that facilitate specific cellular processes.
Clinical Significance
Alterations in phospholipid and glycolipid metabolism can lead to various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases and diabetes. Understanding the structure and function of these lipids can aid in developing therapeutic strategies.
Derived lipids: Classification, structure, properties of fatty acids, sterols, cholesterol, bile acids, lipoproteins
Derived lipids: Classification, structure, properties of fatty acids, sterols, cholesterol, bile acids, lipoproteins
Classification of Derived Lipids
Derived lipids include molecules derived from simple lipids and generally consist of fatty acids and alcohol. They can be classified into three main categories: fatty acids, sterols, and phospholipids.
Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon chains. They can be saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds. Essential fatty acids must be obtained from the diet.
Structure of Fatty Acids
Fatty acids consist of a hydrophilic carboxyl group and a hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain. This amphipathic nature allows them to function in various biological roles, including energy storage and cell membrane formation.
Properties of Fatty Acids
Fatty acids exhibit different melting points based on their saturation. Saturated fatty acids tend to be solid at room temperature, while unsaturated fatty acids are usually liquid. Their solubility in water is low due to long hydrophobic chains.
Sterols
Sterols are a subgroup of steroids and possess a distinctive four-ring structure. Cholesterol is the most well-known sterol, playing critical roles in membrane fluidity and serving as a precursor for steroid hormones.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a type of sterol that is vital for maintaining cellular structures and function. It is primarily synthesized in the liver and is also obtained through dietary sources. It is a precursor for bile acids, steroid hormones, and vitamin D.
Bile Acids
Bile acids are derived from cholesterol and aid in the digestion and absorption of dietary fats. They are synthesized in the liver and stored in the gallbladder, released into the intestine to emulsify fats.
Lipoproteins
Lipoproteins are complexes of lipids and proteins that transport lipids through the bloodstream. They are classified based on their density: chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, and HDL. Each type has different roles in lipid metabolism and cardiovascular health.
Eicosanoids: Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, leukotrienes
Eicosanoids: Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes, Leukotrienes
Introduction to Eicosanoids
Eicosanoids are signaling molecules derived from fatty acids, primarily arachidonic acid. They play critical roles in various physiological processes, including inflammation, immune response, and homeostasis.
Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are a group of lipid compounds that have diverse hormonal effects. They are involved in regulating processes such as blood flow, the formation of blood clots, and the induction of labor. Prostaglandins are produced by the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes from arachidonic acid.
Thromboxanes
Thromboxanes are a class of eicosanoids that promote platelet aggregation and vasoconstriction. They are synthesized from prostaglandin H2 through the action of thromboxane synthase. Thromboxane A2 is the most significant thromboxane, playing a vital role in the clotting process.
Leukotrienes
Leukotrienes are eicosanoids that are primarily involved in the inflammatory response and allergies. They are produced by lipoxygenase enzymes and are vital in mediating asthma and allergic reactions through bronchoconstriction and increased vascular permeability.
Clinical Significance
Eicosanoids have significant implications in medicine. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) work by inhibiting COX enzymes, thus reducing prostaglandin formation and alleviating pain and inflammation. Research on eicosanoids continues to reveal their roles in various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
Nucleic acids: Structure of purines and pyrimidines, nucleosides, nucleotides, chemical and enzymatic sequencing methods
Nucleic acids: Structure of purines and pyrimidines, nucleosides, nucleotides, chemical and enzymatic sequencing methods
Purines
Pyrimidines
Nucleosides
Nucleotides
Chemical Sequencing Methods
Enzymatic Sequencing Methods
DNA: Watson-Crick model, A, B, Z forms, physical properties (density, viscosity, chromic effect, Tm, denaturation, renaturation, hybridization, cot analysis), chemical properties
DNA Structure and Properties
Watson-Crick Model
The Watson-Crick model describes the double helix structure of DNA. It consists of two strands running in opposite directions, with bases on the inside and sugar-phosphate backbones on the outside. The bases pair specifically (adenine with thymine and guanine with cytosine) through hydrogen bonds, allowing for complementary base pairing.
DNA Forms: A, B, Z
DNA can exist in several forms: A-DNA is a right-handed helix more compact than B-DNA, which is the most common form under physiological conditions. Z-DNA is a left-handed helix and can occur in regions of DNA with alternating purine-pyrimidine sequences. Each form has distinct structural and functional properties.
Physical Properties of DNA
Density
DNA density can vary based on base composition and structural form. Typically, GC-rich DNA is denser than AT-rich DNA.
Viscosity
The viscosity of DNA solutions is influenced by the molecular weight and concentration of DNA. Higher molecular weight DNA exhibits greater viscosity.
Chromic Effect
The chromic effect refers to changes in absorbance characteristics of DNA when interacting with chromophores, useful for studying nucleic acid structures.
Melting Temperature (Tm)
Tm is the temperature at which half of the DNA strands are in the double helix state and half are in the denatured single-strand state. Tm is influenced by GC content and ionic strength.
Denaturation
Denaturation involves the separation of double-stranded DNA into single strands, usually through heat or chemical treatment. The melting process can be monitored to determine Tm.
Renaturation
Renaturation is the re-association of single-stranded DNA back into a double helix, typically after cooling or removal of denaturing agents.
Hybridization
Hybridization refers to the process of binding complementary strands of DNA or RNA, playing a key role in techniques like PCR and southern blotting.
Cot Analysis
Cot analysis assesses the kinetics of DNA renaturation and is used to study genome complexity, providing insights into repetitive and unique sequences in genomes.
Chemical Properties of DNA
Chemical properties of DNA include its reactivity and stability during various biochemical processes. Nucleotide interactions, backbone stability, and base modifications can affect overall structure and function.
RNA: Major classes (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA, snRNA, hnRNA), structure, biological functions
RNA Major Classes and Their Functions
mRNA (Messenger RNA)
mRNA is a single-stranded RNA molecule synthesized from a DNA template during transcription. It carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where proteins are synthesized. mRNA undergoes capping, polyadenylation, and splicing before it becomes mature mRNA capable of translation.
rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
rRNA is a structural component of ribosomes, the cellular machinery for protein synthesis. It plays a crucial role in decoding mRNA into polypeptide chains. rRNA molecules contribute to the ribosomal structure, facilitating the binding of mRNA and tRNA.
tRNA (Transfer RNA)
tRNA is a short, adapter molecule that transports amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis. Each tRNA molecule has an anticodon that pairs with a corresponding codon on the mRNA, ensuring that the correct amino acid is added to the growing polypeptide chain.
snRNA (Small Nuclear RNA)
snRNA is involved in the splicing process of pre-mRNA in eukaryotic cells. It is a crucial component of the spliceosome, the complex that removes introns from pre-mRNA and joins exons together to form mature mRNA.
hnRNA (Heterogeneous Nuclear RNA)
hnRNA refers to the primary transcript of eukaryotic genes that is processed to form mRNA. It includes pre-mRNA, which comprises both exons and introns before splicing. It is a crucial intermediate in gene expression regulation.
RNA Structure
RNA is typically single-stranded, consisting of nucleotides made up of ribose sugar, phosphate groups, and nitrogenous bases (adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine). Its structure can vary based on function, with secondary structures (like hairpins) and tertiary structures influencing stability and interaction with proteins.
Biological Functions of RNA
RNA plays multiple roles in the cell, including coding for proteins (mRNA), structural functions (rRNA), and transport of amino acids (tRNA). Additionally, small RNA molecules (snRNA, miRNA, siRNA) are involved in gene regulation and RNA processing. RNA is essential for the flow of genetic information from DNA to protein.
Vitamins and minerals: Classification, sources, structures, RDA, functions, deficiency states of vitamins and macro/microelements
Vitamins and Minerals: Classification, Sources, Structures, RDA, Functions, Deficiency States
Classification of Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins can be classified into fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble vitamins (B-complex and C). Minerals are classified into macroelements (e.g., calcium, potassium, magnesium) and microelements (e.g., iron, zinc, selenium).
Sources of Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins are sourced from a variety of foods: fruits and vegetables for vitamins A and C, dairy for vitamin D, and whole grains for B vitamins. Minerals are obtained from meats, nuts, seeds, and vegetables.
Structures of Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins have diverse chemical structures, such as the ring structure of vitamin B12 and the long hydrocarbon chain of vitamin E. Minerals are primarily ionic or metallic and do not have complex structures.
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA)
RDA values vary by age, sex, and life stage. For example, the RDA for vitamin C for adults is 65-90 mg per day, while for iron, it is 8 mg for men and 18 mg for women.
Functions of Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins serve various functions: vitamin A is crucial for vision, vitamin C is important for immune function, while minerals like calcium are essential for bone health and iron for oxygen transport.
Deficiency States of Vitamins and Minerals
Deficiencies can lead to health issues: a deficiency in vitamin D can cause rickets, vitamin C deficiency leads to scurvy, and inadequate iron intake can cause anemia. Each deficiency has specific symptoms and long-term health impacts.
