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Semester 1: Basic Psychological Processes
Psychology: Nature, Scope and Applications; Approaches: Psychodynamic, Behavioristic, Cognitive, Humanistic & Indigenous Indian Psychology (with special reference to Shrimad Bhagwad Gita)
Psychology: Nature, Scope and Applications; Approaches: Psychodynamic, Behavioristic, Cognitive, Humanistic & Indigenous Indian Psychology
Attention Processes: Selective and Sustained Attention: Nature and Determinants; Perceptual Processes: Nature and Determinants; Perceptual Organization; Perceptual Illusion
Attention Processes and Perceptual Processes
Selective Attention
Selective attention refers to the process by which an individual focuses on one specific stimulus while ignoring others in the environment. This is crucial for filtering out distractions and allows for effective task performance. Factors influencing selective attention include the salience of stimuli, personal interests, and cognitive load.
Sustained Attention
Sustained attention involves maintaining focus on a particular task or stimulus over an extended period. This type of attention is vital for tasks that require continuous monitoring. Determinants of sustained attention include motivation, fatigue levels, and the complexity of the task at hand.
Nature of Perceptual Processes
Perceptual processes are mechanisms by which individuals interpret sensory information. These processes enable the recognition and organization of elements from the environment into meaningful patterns. They are influenced by past experiences, cultural factors, and individual differences.
Determinants of Perceptual Processes
Determinants of perceptual processes include environmental cues, attention, context, and expectations. Environmental aspects such as lighting and background can affect perception. Expectations and experiences shape how individuals interpret sensory data, often leading to biases in perception.
Perceptual Organization
Perceptual organization refers to the way individuals group sensory stimuli to form a coherent perception. This process is guided by principles such as proximity, similarity, closure, and continuity, which help in simplifying complex visual scenes.
Perceptual Illusion
Perceptual illusions occur when the perception of a stimulus differs from its reality, often highlighting the complexities and limitations of human perception. Examples include optical illusions that manipulate visual cues, leading to misinterpretations of size, shape, or color.
Learning: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning: Methods and Procedures
Learning: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning: Methods and Procedures
Classical Conditioning
A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired. It involves the association of an involuntary response with a stimulus. Key components include unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR). Famous experiments include Pavlov's dogs, where a neutral stimulus (bell) was paired with food leading to a conditioned response of salivation.
Operant Conditioning
A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Developed by B.F. Skinner, it emphasizes the consequences of behavior. Key concepts include reinforcement (positive and negative) and punishment (positive and negative). Reinforcement increases behavior likelihood, while punishment decreases it. Skinner boxes are a common experimental setup.
Key Differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning focuses on associating an involuntary response with a stimulus. Operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors and their consequences. In classical conditioning, the response is elicited by the stimulus, while in operant conditioning, the behavior is emitted and followed by consequences.
Applications of Conditioning
Both classical and operant conditioning have practical applications in various fields. In education, they are used to shape behaviors and enhance learning. In therapy, techniques like systematic desensitization utilize classical conditioning, while behavior modification programs use operant strategies to reinforce desired behaviors.
Research Methods in Conditioning
Experimental research is crucial for studying conditioning. Classical conditioning typically uses paired stimulus presentations, while operant conditioning employs reinforcement schedules and behavior observation. Key studies have provided insights into learning processes.
Memory and Forgetting: Stages of Memory: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval; Types of Memory: Sensory, Short Term and Long Term Memory (Basic Introduction); Forgetting: Interference and Cue-Dependent Forgetting (Basic Introduction)
Memory and Forgetting
The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory. This involves attention and perception to ensure that information is processed effectively.
The maintenance of encoded information over time. This can involve different durations and capacities depending on the type of memory being utilized.
The process of accessing stored information when needed. This can include recalling facts or recognizing previously learned material.
The initial, brief storage of sensory information. This type lasts only a few seconds and is subdivided into iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory.
Also known as working memory, it holds a limited amount of information for a short period, typically around 20 to 30 seconds, and is crucial for ongoing cognitive tasks.
A more permanent type of memory that can store vast amounts of information for long durations. It is further divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory.
This occurs when other information disrupts the retrieval of desired memories. It can be proactive (old information hinders new) or retroactive (new information hinders old).
This refers to the inability to retrieve information due to a lack of appropriate cues or triggers that aid recall. Contextual and state-dependent cues play a significant role.
Intelligence: Nature and Definition; Concept of IQ; Theories of Intelligence (Introduction of Basic Concepts): Spearman, Guilford, and Sternberg
Intelligence: Nature and Definition; Concept of IQ; Theories of Intelligence
Nature and Definition of Intelligence
Intelligence refers to the ability to learn, understand, and apply knowledge to manipulate one's environment. It encompasses a wide range of cognitive abilities, including reasoning, problem-solving, and adaptation to new situations. Traditionally viewed as a singular trait, intelligence is increasingly recognized as a multifaceted construct.
Concept of IQ
Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a measure used to evaluate intellectual potential relative to a standardized population. Derived from standardized tests, IQ assesses various cognitive skills such as memory, reasoning, and comprehension. An average IQ score is set at 100, with scores distributed across a bell curve, reflecting the normal distribution of intelligence in the population.
Theories of Intelligence
Several theories have emerged to explain the complexity of intelligence. The major theories include: 1. Spearman's Two-Factor Theory: Spearman proposed that intelligence consists of a general factor (g) influencing performance across various cognitive tasks and specific factors (s) unique to particular tasks. 2. Guilford's Structure of Intellect: Guilford suggested that intelligence comprises multiple dimensions, including operations, content, and products. His model emphasizes the diversity of cognitive abilities. 3. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: Sternberg posited that intelligence consists of three components: analytical (problem-solving), creative (innovation), and practical (adapting to real-world scenarios). This theory underscores the applicability of intelligence in everyday life.
Personality: Definition and Determinants; Approach of Personality (Basic Concepts): Trait approaches (Allport and Cattell)
Personality: Definition and Determinants
Definition of Personality
Personality is the unique and stable pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish one individual from another. It encompasses a range of traits and characteristics that form the foundation of how a person interacts with their environment.
Determinants of Personality
Personality is shaped by a combination of genetic, environmental, and social factors. These determinants can include biological predispositions, early childhood experiences, culture, family dynamics, and life events that influence an individual's development.
Trait Approaches to Personality
Trait theories of personality focus on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics. They assert that personality is made up of a set of traits that are consistent over time and across situations.
Allport's Trait Theory
Gordon Allport proposed that personality traits are the fundamental building blocks of personality. He categorized traits into three levels: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits, emphasizing individual uniqueness and the importance of the subjective experience.
Cattell's Factor Analysis
Raymond Cattell utilized factor analysis to identify 16 primary traits that he believed underlie personality. His approach sought to quantify personality characteristics and understand how they relate to behavior in different contexts.
Motivation: Nature and Concept (Needs, Drives, Instincts); Types of Motives: Biological and Social Motives
Motivation: Nature and Concept (Needs, Drives, Instincts)
Motivation refers to the processes that initiate, guide, and maintain goal-oriented behaviors. It encompasses biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior.
Understanding motivation is crucial for analyzing behavior and psychological processes.
Needs are basic requirements that drive individuals to take action. They can be physiological (e.g., hunger, thirst) or psychological (e.g., esteem, belonging).
Maslow's hierarchy of needs provides a framework that categorizes needs from basic to complex.
Drives are internal states that arise from a biological or physiological need. They create a sense of tension that motivates individuals to act.
Hunger drive leads to food-seeking behavior; thirst drive leads to water-seeking.
Instincts are innate, biologically determined behaviors that are typically species-specific. They are not learned and occur in response to specific stimuli.
Migration in birds, maternal instincts in animals.
Biological motives are driven by physical needs necessary for survival. They include basic needs such as hunger, thirst, and sleep.
They ensure the individual's well-being and continuance of life.
Social motives are influenced by social factors and interactions. They include the need for affiliation, achievement, and power.
They help individuals engage with others and fulfill social roles.
Emotion: Nature of Emotion; Basic Emotions; Theories of Emotion: James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer
Emotion
Emotions are complex psychological states that involve a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response.
Subjective experience: How individuals experience emotions internally.
Physiological response: Bodily changes such as increased heart rate or sweating.
Behavioral response: Actions or expressions that convey feelings.
Basic emotions are fundamental feelings that are universally recognized across cultures.
Happiness: Joyful and pleasurable emotions.
Sadness: Feelings of loss or disappointment.
Fear: Reaction to perceived danger or threat.
Anger: Emotional response to perceived injustice.
Disgust: Reaction to unpleasant stimuli.
Surprise: Response to unexpected events.
This theory posits that physiological arousal precedes the emotional experience.
Emotion is experienced after the body reacts to a stimulus.
This theory suggests that emotional expression results from the simultaneous activity of the sympathetic nervous system and the brain.
Physiological response and emotional experience occur simultaneously but independently.
This two-factor theory states that emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.
First, physiological arousal occurs, followed by cognitive interpretation to label the emotion.
