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Semester 1: Indian Philosophy
Introduction: Common characterstics and classification of Indian philosophical school: Āstika and Nāstika
Introduction: Common characteristics and classification of Indian philosophical schools: Āstika and Nāstika
Overview of Indian Philosophy
Indian philosophy encompasses a diverse range of thoughts and concepts that emerged in the Indian subcontinent. It is characterized by its emphasis on spirituality, ethics, and the nature of reality.
Classification of Indian Philosophical Schools
Indian philosophical schools can be broadly classified into two categories: Āstika and Nāstika. Āstika schools accept the authority of the Vedas, while Nāstika schools do not.
Āstika Philosophical Schools
The Āstika schools include six orthodox systems: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. Each of these schools provides its perspectives on epistemology, metaphysics, and ethics, often intertwining philosophy with religious teachings.
Nāstika Philosophical Schools
The Nāstika schools include Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka. These schools reject the Vedic authority and offer alternative views on ethics, the self, and the nature of liberation.
Common Characteristics of Indian Philosophy
Indian philosophy often emphasizes the concepts of Dharma (righteousness), Karma (action and its consequences), and Moksha (liberation). There is also a strong focus on meditation and self-realization.
Comparison: Āstika vs Nāstika
While both Āstika and Nāstika schools address questions of existence and ethics, their fundamental beliefs diverge significantly on the acceptance of Vedic authority. This division influences their respective approaches to spirituality and reality.
Cārvāka School: Epistemology, Metaphysics, Ethics
Cārvāka School: Epistemology, Metaphysics, Ethics
Epistemology
Cārvāka emphasizes direct perception as the only valid source of knowledge. They reject inference and testimony as reliable means of understanding reality. Skepticism towards metaphysical claims stems from their materialistic worldview, focusing only on what can be empirically observed.
Metaphysics
Cārvāka adopts a materialistic perspective, asserting that only the physical body exists. They deny the existence of an afterlife, soul, or any non-material entities. Knowledge is grounded in the tangible world, leading to a rejection of supernatural explanations.
Ethics
Ethical views in Cārvāka are centered on pleasure and happiness as the ultimate goals of life. They advocate for living a life based on sensory experiences and material comfort while emphasizing consequentialism, where the outcomes of actions determine their moral value.
Jainism: Concept of sat, dravya, paryāya, Guṇa; Anekāntavāda, Syādvāda and Sapta-bhaṅgi-naya, Theory of Karma, Bondage and Liberation
Jainism Concepts and Philosophy
Concept of Sat
In Jainism, 'Sat' refers to the ultimate reality or existence. It is linked with the idea of truth and the nature of the soul. Jain philosophy emphasizes that the essence of all beings is real, and understanding this reality is crucial for liberation.
Dravya
'Dravya' translates to substance in Jain philosophy. It indicates the fundamental elements that constitute reality. Jainism asserts that there are six categories of dravya: soul, matter, space, time, and the two principles of motion and rest. Understanding these substances helps comprehend the nature of existence.
Paryāya
'Paryāya' implies the modes or conditions of substances. It describes the changing aspects of dravyas while maintaining their essence. Jains examine how each dravya can exhibit numerous states and transformations over time.
Guṇa
'Guṇa' stands for quality or attribute in Jain philosophy. Each dravya possesses certain qualities that define its nature. The study of guṇa is essential as it influences the behavior and characteristics of the substance.
Anekāntavāda
Anekāntavāda is the doctrine of non-absolutism in Jain philosophy. It posits that reality has multiple aspects and cannot be defined from a single perspective. This promotes tolerance and understanding of different viewpoints.
Syādvāda
Syādvāda translates to the theory of conditional orientation. It complements anekāntavāda and suggests that propositions about reality can be true and false depending on context. Syādvāda encourages a nuanced understanding of truth.
Sapta-bhaṅgi-naya
Sapta-bhaṅgi-naya refers to the seven-fold predication, a way of expressing the different aspects of reality. This approach aids in discussing complex ideas in a structured manner, allowing for a more comprehensive analysis.
Theory of Karma
In Jainism, karma is a fundamental concept linking actions to consequences. Karma is viewed as a form of matter that attaches to the soul, influencing its cycle of birth and rebirth until liberation is achieved.
Bondage and Liberation
Bondage in Jainism refers to the attachment of karma to the soul, which causes the cycle of birth and rebirth. Liberation (moksha) is achieved through the removal of karma, facilitated by right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct.
Buddhism: Four noble truths, Theory of dependent origination (Pratītyasamutpāda), Definition of Reality (Arthakriyākāritvamsattvam), Doctrine of momentariness (Kṣhaṇabhangavāda), Theory of no-soul (Nairātmyavāda), Nirvāṇa, Hīnyāna and Mahāyāna
Buddhism
The foundation of Buddhist belief, outlining the nature of suffering and the path to overcoming it.
The truth of suffering (dukkha) acknowledges that suffering is an inherent part of existence.
The cause of suffering (samudaya) is identified as craving and attachment.
The cessation of suffering (nirodha) is possible through the elimination of craving.
The path to end suffering (magga) is the Eightfold Path.
Pratītyasamutpāda; the principle that all phenomena arise in dependence upon other phenomena.
Emphasizes the interconnected nature of all things.
Describes the twelve links that illustrate how ignorance leads to suffering.
Arthakriyākāritvamsattvam; explores the nature of existence and reality in Buddhism.
Reality is dependent on mental perception and conceptual frameworks.
Emphasizes the absence of inherent existence in all phenomena.
Kṣaṇabhangavāda; asserts that all things are momentary and constantly changing.
Highlights the transient nature of existence.
Every experience is fleeting and thus subject to change.
Nairātmyavāda; posits that there is no permanent self (ātman).
Teaches the concept of selflessness.
Challenges notions of personal identity.
The ultimate goal in Buddhism, representing liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara).
The end of suffering and desire.
Achieving a state of perfect peace.
Lesser vehicle; often associated with the more individualistic initial teachings of Buddhism.
Greater vehicle; emphasizes the collective journey towards enlightenment for all beings.
Mahāyāna introduces concepts like Bodhisattva, while Hīnyāna focuses on personal liberation.
Sāṅkhya: Satkāryavāda, Nature of Prakṛti, its constituents and proofs for its existence, Nature of Puruṣa and proofs for its existence, plurality of the Puruṣas, theory of evolution
Sāṅkhya: Satkāryavāda, Nature of Prakṛti, Proofs for Its Existence, Nature of Purusha, Plurality of the Purushas, Theory of Evolution
Satkāryavāda
Satkāryavāda is a fundamental principle in Sāṅkhya philosophy that deals with the theory of causation, which states that the effect preexists in the cause. It emphasizes that all effects are already contained in their causes and only become manifest through certain processes. This concept is crucial for understanding the relationship between Prakṛti and Purusha.
Nature of Prakṛti
Prakṛti is the fundamental nature or primal matter in Sāṅkhya philosophy. It is described as indeterminate and potential, containing the seeds of all creation. Prakṛti is characterized by the three guṇas: sattva, rajas, and tamas. These qualities interact to produce the diversity of the manifest universe. Understanding Prakṛti is essential for grasping the complexities of existence.
Proofs for the Existence of Prakṛti
Proving the existence of Prakṛti involves examining the observable universe and its manifestations. The transformation and diversity in nature provide evidence for an underlying principle (Prakṛti) that produces the material world. The consistency of natural laws and the observable changes further support the existence of a subtle, unchanging essence beneath the material reality.
Nature of Purusha
Purusha is the conscious principle or the true self in Sāṅkhya philosophy. It represents pure consciousness, unchanging and eternal, distinct from Prakṛti. Purusha does not engage actively in the processes of creation but witnesses the actions of Prakṛti. This distinction between the two is crucial for understanding the philosophical implications of dualism in Sāṅkhya.
Proofs for the Existence of Purusha
The existence of Purusha can be inferred through introspection and the subjective experience of self-awareness. While Prakṛti is transient and subject to change, the consistent experience of consciousness and the sense of individuality suggest the presence of an underlying Purusha. This duality is foundational to many discussions in Indian philosophy.
Plurality of Purushas
Sāṅkhya philosophy posits that there are multiple Purushas, each representing individual consciousness. This plurality emphasizes that each entity has its distinct awareness and experiences, despite being part of a broader reality. The recognition of multiple Purushas allows for a more integrated view of individuality and collective existence.
Theory of Evolution in Sāṅkhya
In the context of Sāṅkhya, the theory of evolution refers to the process through which Prakṛti manifests into the diverse forms of the universe. This evolution is governed by the interplay of the three guṇas and follows a systematic order from the subtle to the gross. The evolution of consciousness and matter highlights the dynamic relationship between Prakṛti and Purusha.
Yoga: Citta, Cittavṛtti, Cittabhūmi, Eight fold path of Yoga (Aṣṭāṅga Yoga), God
Yoga: Citta, Cittavṛtti, Cittabhūmi, Eightfold Path of Yoga, God
Citta
Citta refers to the mind and its functions in yoga. It encompasses thoughts, emotions, and the subconscious. The understanding of Citta is crucial for practitioners to cultivate awareness and control over their mental processes.
Cittavṛtti
Cittavṛtti refers to the fluctuations or modifications of the mind. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali discusses how these vṛttis can lead to distraction and confusion. The goal of yoga is to calm these fluctuations for a stable and clear mind.
Cittabhūmi
Cittabhūmi can be translated as the landscape or terrain of the mind. It deals with the different states of consciousness that one can experience, ranging from ignorance to enlightenment. Understanding these states is essential for spiritual growth.
Eightfold Path of Yoga (Aṣṭāṅga Yoga)
Aṣṭāṅga Yoga, or the Eightfold Path, consists of eight practices: Yama (moral restraints), Niyama (observances), Āsana (postures), Prāṇāyāma (breath control), Pratyāhāra (withdrawal of senses), Dhāraṇā (concentration), Dhyāna (meditation), and Samādhi (absorption). This path guides practitioners toward spiritual awakening.
God in Yoga
In the context of yoga, God is often seen as the ultimate reality or consciousness. Philosophies such as Advaita Vedanta highlight the oneness with God as a goal of spiritual practice. The relationship between the individual self (Atman) and the universal self (Brahman) is central to understanding divinity in yoga.
Nyāya: Pramā and Pramāṇa, Pratyakṣa (definition), Sannikarṣa, Classification of Pratyakṣa: Nirvikalpa, Savikalpa, Laukika, Alaukika; Anumiti, Anumāna (definition), Vyāpti, Parāmarśa, Classification of Anumāna: Pūrvavat, Śeṣavat, Sāmānyatodṛṣṭa, Kevalānvayi, Kevalavyatireki, Anvaya-vyatireki, Svārthanumāna, Parārthanumāna, Upmāna, Śabda Pramāṇa.
Nyaya: Prama and Pramana, Pratyaksha, Definition, Sannikarsha, Classification of Pratyaksha: Nirvikalpa, Savikalpa, Laukika, Alaukika; Anumiti, Anumana (Definition), Vyapti, Paramarsha, Classification of Anumana: Purvavat, Sheshavat, Samanyatodrishtha, Kevalanvayi, Kevalavyatireki, Anvaya-vyatireki, Swarthanumana, Pararthanumana, Upamana, Shabda Pramana
Nyaya: Prama and Pramana
Nyaya philosophy emphasizes the concept of Prama, which refers to valid knowledge. Pramana is the means through which this knowledge is acquired. Both concepts are critical for understanding epistemology in Indian philosophy.
Pratyaksha (Definition)
Pratyaksha refers to direct, immediate perception. It is one of the key sources of knowledge in Nyaya, highlighting the importance of sensory experience in gaining knowledge.
Sannikarsha
Sannikarsha denotes the conjunction or proximity of the object, the sense organ, and the mind, which facilitates perception. It is a fundamental aspect of Pratyaksha.
Classification of Pratyaksha: Nirvikalpa and Savikalpa
Nirvikalpa Pratyaksha is non-conceptual perception, devoid of any doubt or categorization. Savikalpa Pratyaksha involves conceptualization, where the experience is categorized.
Laukika and Alaukika
Laukika refers to ordinary or empirical perception, while Alaukika refers to extraordinary perceptions that extend beyond typical sensory experiences.
Anumiti and Anumana (Definition)
Anumiti is inference, a process of deriving knowledge through reasoning. Anumana is the method of inference itself, outlining how conclusions are drawn from observations.
Vyapti
Vyapti is the universal relation between the middle term and the major term in syllogism, signifying the connection between premises and conclusions.
Paramarsha
Paramarsha entails reflection or examination, crucial for verifying inferences and bolstering the knowledge derived from Anumana.
Classification of Anumana: Purvavat and Sheshavat
Purvavat inference is based on prior knowledge and experiences, while Sheshavat inference utilizes the absence of a quality in one instance to infer its absence in another.
Samanyatodrishtha, Kevalanvayi, Kevalavyatireki
Samanyatodrishtha refers to general observation, Kevalanvayi is the method of inferring presence only based on specific instances, and Kevalavyatireki infers absence.
Anvaya-vyatireki
Anvaya-vyatireki is a form of inference that combines both presence (anvaya) and absence (vyatireka) to arrive at a conclusion.
Swarthanumana and Pararthanumana
Swarthanumana refers to self-centered inference, while Pararthanumana deals with inference aimed at others.
Upamana
Upamana is a method of knowledge acquisition through analogy, comparing similar objects to gain understanding.
Shabda Pramana
Shabda Pramana denotes knowledge derived from verbal testimony, where authority and reliable sources serve as the basis for acquiring knowledge.
Vaiśeṣika: Padārtha, Dravya, Guṇa, Karma, Sāmānya, Viśeṣa, Samavāya, Abhāva
Vaiśeṣika
Padārtha
Padārtha refers to the categories of reality in Vaiśeṣika philosophy. It encompasses everything that exists, categorizing it into different types to facilitate understanding of the universe.
Dravya
Dravya means substance. In Vaiśeṣika, substances are eternal entities that exist independently and form the basis of all existence. They are categorized into nine types, including earth, water, fire, air, space, time, direction, soul, and mind.
Guṇa
Guṇa refers to the quality or attributes of substances. These qualities help in distinguishing one substance from another. Vaiśeṣika identifies specific qualities like color, taste, smell, texture, and sound that can be attributed to substances.
Karma
Karma denotes action or activity. Within the context of Vaiśeṣika, Karma relates to the processes and changes that substances undergo. It emphasizes the dynamic aspect of reality where substances interact with each other.
Sāmānya
Sāmānya means universality or generality. It pertains to the common characteristics that multiple substances may share, allowing for classification and broader understanding of categories.
Viśeṣa
Viśeṣa refers to individuality or particularity. It focuses on the unique features that distinguish a specific substance from others, emphasizing the distinct nature of each entity.
Samavāya
Samavāya describes the relationship of inherence, indicating how substances and their qualities are interconnected. This concept explains how properties belong to specific substances.
Abhāva
Abhāva signifies non-existence or absence. In Vaiśeṣika, it is an important category that helps in understanding negation and the absence of particular substances or qualities.
Mīmāṁsā (Prabhākara and Bhatta): Arthāpatti and Anuplabdhi as source of knowledge.
Mīmāṃsā (Prabhākara and Bhatta): Arthāpatti and Anuplabdhi as source of knowledge
Introduction to Mīmāṃsā
Mīmāṃsā is a school of Indian philosophy focused on the interpretation of texts, particularly the Vedas. It seeks to understand the nature of dharma and rituals. Prabhākara and Bhatta are two prominent sub-schools within Mīmāṃsā that explore epistemology and the sources of knowledge.
Overview of Prabhākara and Bhatta
Prabhākara advocates for a more flexible interpretation of texts, emphasizing the role of context. Bhatta, on the other hand, maintains a more traditional stance, arguing for a stricter adherence to textual meaning.
Arthāpatti (Postulation)
Arthāpatti is a source of knowledge which deals with situations where something is presumed based on circumstances. It allows for the inference of unknown facts based on known information. For example, if one sees a man with a full stomach who has not eaten, one may deduce that he has eaten, thus confirming the fact through reasoning.
Anuplabdhi (Non-perception)
Anuplabdhi aids in understanding the absence of something as a form of knowledge. It arises when one realizes that something is not present, which can lead to the conclusion that it does not exist or is not applicable in context. This has implications in philosophical arguments concerning existence.
Comparison of Arthāpatti and Anuplabdhi
While Arthāpatti concerns itself with hypothesizing about what must be true given the available evidence, Anuplabdhi focuses on the realization of absence as a source of knowledge. Both concepts showcase the diverse approaches within Mīmāṃsā to epistemology.
Conclusion
The study of Arthāpatti and Anuplabdhi within the frameworks of Prabhākara and Bhatta enriches our understanding of knowledge acquisition in Mīmāṃsā. These concepts illustrate the complexities of inference and perception within Indian philosophical discourse.
Advaita Vedānta: Śaṅkara’s view of Brahman, Saguṇa and Nirguṇa Brahman, Three grades of Sattā:Prātibhāsika,Vyāvahārika,Pāramārthika, Jīva, Jagat, Māyā and Mokṣa.
Advaita Vedānta: Śaṅkara's view of Brahman, Saguṇa and Nirguṇa Brahman, Three grades of Sattā: Prātibhāsika, Vyāvahārika, Pāramārthika, Jīva, Jagat, Māyā and Mokṣa
Śaṅkara's View of Brahman
Advaita Vedānta presents Brahman as the ultimate reality, transcendental and immanent. Śaṅkara emphasizes the non-dual nature of Brahman, asserting that there is no distinction between the individual self (Atman) and Brahman.
Saguṇa Brahman
Saguṇa Brahman refers to the concept of Brahman with attributes or qualities. It is often associated with personal deities and is seen as a means for devotees to engage with the divine through worship and rituals.
Nirguṇa Brahman
Nirguṇa Brahman represents the abstract, formless aspect of Brahman, devoid of any attributes. It embodies the absolute consciousness beyond all identification and perception.
Three Grades of Sattā
The three grades of reality according to Advaita Vedānta are: Prātibhāsika (the level of illusion or appearance), Vyāvahārika (the empirical level of interaction), and Pāramārthika (the ultimate level of truth where only Brahman exists).
Jīva
Jīva denotes the individual soul or conscious being, believed to be non-different from Brahman in essence but appears separate due to ignorance (avidyā). The realization of the unity of Jīva and Brahman is a central theme.
Jagat
Jagat refers to the world or universe, which is perceived as an illusion (Māyā) in the Advaita worldview. It exists in relation to consciousness and is considered transient and impermanent.
Māyā
Māyā is the principle of illusion that creates the appearance of plurality and diversity in the world. It is through Māyā that Brahman manifests in various forms, yet it ultimately veils the true nature of reality.
Mokṣa
Mokṣa is liberation from the cycle of birth and death (samsara) and the realization of oneness with Brahman. The goal of spiritual practice in Advaita Vedānta is to attain Mokṣa through knowledge (jnana) and self-realization.
Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta: Rāmānuja’s view of Brahman, Jīva, Jagat, Refutation of the doctrine of Māyā, Mokṣa
Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta: Rāmānuja's view of Brahman, Jīva, Jagat, Refutation of the doctrine of Māyā, Mokṣa
Viśiṣṭādvaita is a school of Vedānta philosophy established by Rāmānuja. It emphasizes qualified non-dualism, suggesting that the ultimate reality, Brahman, possesses qualities and is the source of everything.
In Rāmānuja's view, Brahman is personal and characterized by infinite qualities such as goodness, power, and knowledge. Brahman is the sustainer and the origin of the universe.
Jīva refers to the individual soul. Rāmānuja posits that Jīvas are distinct from Brahman but inherently connected to Him. The Jīva's nature is to serve and realize its relationship with Brahman.
Jagat refers to the material world. Rāmānuja asserts that Jagat is real and not an illusion, playing a critical role in the divine plan and the evolution of souls.
Rāmānuja contests the Māyā doctrine by asserting that it leads to an erroneous understanding of reality. Instead, he emphasizes the real and eternal relationship between the soul and Brahman.
Mokṣa in Viśiṣṭādvaita is the realization of one's eternal relationship with Brahman. It embodies bliss and liberation from the cycle of birth and death through devotion and grace.
