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Semester 2: Western Philosophy
Plato and Aristotle: Ideas, Substance, Form and Matter, Causation, Actuality and Potentiality
Plato and Aristotle: Ideas, Substance, Form and Matter, Causation, Actuality and Potentiality
Plato's Theory of Ideas
Plato posits that non-material abstract forms represent the most accurate reality. He believes that these Ideas (or Forms) exist independently of the objects that instantiate them. An example is the Form of Beauty, which all beautiful things share in part.
Aristotle's Substance
Aristotle critiques Plato's Theory of Ideas, proposing a more practical substance theory. He asserts that substances are individual entities that possess both form and matter, combining essence and existence.
Form and Matter
For both philosophers, form is the essential characteristic of a thing, while matter is its physical manifestation. Plato separates them, while Aristotle sees them as components of a single substance.
Causation in Plato and Aristotle
Plato does not extensively explore causation, leaning towards an idealistic approach. Aristotle develops a more comprehensive framework, identifying four causes: material, formal, efficient, and final.
Actuality and Potentiality
Aristotle's concepts of actuality (the realization of a potential state) and potentiality (the capacity to become or to change) are central to his metaphysics. Plato's emphasis is more on the ideal than on these changing states.
Descartes: Cartesian method of doubt, cogito ergo sum, criterion of truth, types of ideas, Proofs for the existence of God, Mind-body relation: Interactionism
Descartes: Cartesian method of doubt, cogito ergo sum, criterion of truth, types of ideas, Proofs for the existence of God, Mind-body relation: Interactionism
Cartesian Method of Doubt
Descartes' method of doubt involves systematic skepticism. It requires questioning the certainty of all beliefs to establish a foundation of certain knowledge. Descartes sought to discard all beliefs that could be doubted until he found an indubitable truth.
Cogito Ergo Sum
The phrase 'I think, therefore I am' is a fundamental element of Western philosophy. It signifies the realization that the act of thinking is proof of one's existence. This assertion is foundational for building knowledge.
Criterion of Truth
Descartes proposes a criterion for truth based on clear and distinct perceptions. He argues that if something is perceived clearly and distinctly, it must be true, establishing a standard for evaluating beliefs.
Types of Ideas
Descartes categorizes ideas into three types: adventitious ideas (from external sources), innate ideas (inborn knowledge), and frivolous ideas (imaginary constructs). This classification is essential for understanding the nature of knowledge.
Proofs for the Existence of God
Descartes provides several proofs for the existence of God, including the ontological argument, asserting that the idea of a perfect being must originate from a perfect being. He argues that God's existence is necessary for the reliability of clear and distinct perceptions.
Mind-Body Relation: Interactionism
Interactionism, proposed by Descartes, asserts that the mind and body are distinct entities that interact with each other. This theory suggests that mental events can cause physical events and vice versa, posing questions about the nature of consciousness and physical existence.
Spinoza: Doctrine of substance, attributes and modes, Existence of God, Pantheism, Parallelism
Spinoza: Doctrine of substance, attributes and modes, Existence of God, Pantheism, Parallelism
Doctrine of Substance
Spinoza posits that there is one substance, which is self-caused and infinite. This substance is synonymous with God and nature, suggesting that everything that exists is part of this singular substance.
Attributes of Substance
According to Spinoza, substance has infinite attributes, but humans can only comprehend two: thought and extension. These attributes represent the mental and physical realms respectively.
Modes of Substance
Modes are the particular manifestations or modifications of substance. They are finite and contingent, arising from the attributes of substance.
Existence of God
Spinoza's conception of God differs from traditional theological views. For him, God is not a transcendent being but identical to the universe. God exists necessarily and is the totality of everything.
Pantheism
Spinoza's philosophy is often described as pantheistic, as he identifies God with nature. This leads to the belief that everything in the universe is part of the divine reality.
Parallelism
Spinoza's parallelism suggests that the order of ideas in the mind corresponds to the order of events in the physical world. This means that mental and physical states are two aspects of the same reality.
Leibnitz: Monads, Truth of reason, Truth of facts, Innateness of ideas, Doctrine of pre-established harmony
Leibnitz: Monads, Truth of reason, Truth of facts, Innateness of ideas, Doctrine of pre-established harmony
Monads
Monads are the fundamental simple substances that compose the universe in Leibnitz's philosophy. They are indivisible, unique entities that reflect the entire universe from their own perspective. Each Monad is programmed to express the universe in its own way and does not interact with other Monads directly.
Truth of Reason vs Truth of Facts
Leibnitz distinguishes between two types of truths: truths of reason, which are necessary and self-evident, and truths of facts, which are contingent and based on the state of the world. Truths of reason are our logical principles, while truths of facts are derived from experience and observation.
Innateness of Ideas
Leibnitz argued that some ideas and concepts are innate, meaning they are inherent to the mind and not derived from experience. He believed that the human mind possesses certain foundational ideas from birth, which are revealed through experience and reflection.
Doctrine of Pre-established Harmony
Leibnitz proposed that Monads do not interact directly but are coordinated in a pre-established harmony orchestrated by God. This means that the activities of individual Monads are synchronized in a way that creates the appearance of interaction, despite their complete independence.
Locke: Refutation of innate ideas, the origin and formation of ideas, simple and complex ideas, substance, modes and relations, nature of knowledge and its degrees, limits of knowledge, primary and secondary qualities.
Locke: Refutation of Innate Ideas, Origin and Formation of Ideas, Simple and Complex Ideas, Substance, Modes and Relations, Nature of Knowledge and Its Degrees, Limits of Knowledge, Primary and Secondary Qualities
Locke argues against the notion of innate ideas, proposing that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa or blank slate. He suggests that all knowledge is derived from experience, thus rejecting the idea that certain concepts are inherently known.
Ideas originate from sensory experiences and reflections. According to Locke, the process includes sensation (external stimuli) and reflection (internal thoughts), which together form the basis of all knowledge.
Simple ideas are the basic building blocks of knowledge, derived directly from experience. In contrast, complex ideas are constructed by combining simple ideas, allowing for more intricate concepts and understanding.
Locke defines substances as independent entities that possess qualities. Modes are dependent upon substances and can change without altering the substance itself. Relations refer to the connections and comparisons between different ideas.
Knowledge can be categorized into intuitive knowledge (immediate recognition), demonstrative knowledge (deductive reasoning), and sensitive knowledge (knowledge derived from sensory experience). Each degree varies in certainty and clarity.
Locke emphasizes the limitations of human understanding, asserting that while we can gain knowledge through experience, there are boundaries to what can be known. He warns against overstepping these limits in philosophical inquiry.
Primary qualities exist within the object itself, such as solidity, extension, and motion. Secondary qualities, like color and taste, arise from the interaction between primary qualities and the perceiver's senses. Locke argues this distinction is crucial for understanding perception.
Berkeley: Refutation of abstract ideas, criticism of locke’s distinction between primary and secondary qualities, Immaterialism, esse est percipi, role of God
Berkeley: Refutation of abstract ideas, criticism of Locke's distinction between primary and secondary qualities, Immaterialism, esse est percipi, role of God
Refutation of Abstract Ideas
Berkeley argues that abstract ideas do not exist independent of perception. He claims that all ideas are particular and concrete, challenging the notion of a distinct abstract or general idea.
Criticism of Locke's Distinction
Berkeley critiques Locke's separation of primary qualities (those that exist in objects) and secondary qualities (those dependent on perception). He asserts that all qualities are perceived and thus empirical, rejecting the idea of an objective reality independent of perception.
Immaterialism
Berkeley asserts that material substances do not exist independently of perception. His famous dictum 'esse est percipi' emphasizes that to be is to be perceived, proposing that all existence is fundamentally tied to being perceived by a mind.
Esse est Percipi
The principle suggests that objects only exist if they are perceived. This leads to the conclusion that reality is a construct of perception, blurring the lines between subject and object.
Role of God
In Berkeley's view, God serves as the ultimate perceiver. He posits that while human perception may be limited, God's perception guarantees the continual existence of all things, ensuring that the world remains coherent and ordered.
Hume: Impression and Ideas, distinction between judgements concerning relations of ideas and judgements concerning matters of fact, theory of causality, theory of self and personal identity, Scepticism.
Hume: Impression and Ideas, Distinction Between Judgements Concerning Relations of Ideas and Judgements Concerning Matters of Fact, Theory of Causality, Theory of Self and Personal Identity, Scepticism
Impressions and Ideas
Hume distinguishes between impressions and ideas, where impressions are direct, vivid experiences derived from sensory perceptions, and ideas are the faint copies of these impressions that occur in the mind. Impressions are the raw data of experience, while ideas arise from the mental processing of these impressions.
Judgements Concerning Relations of Ideas
Hume classifies judgements concerning relations of ideas as those that are necessarily true and discoverable by logic. Examples include mathematical truths or geometrical propositions, which do not depend on the empirical world but instead rely on the relation between concepts.
Judgements Concerning Matters of Fact
In contrast, judgements concerning matters of fact are contingent truths based on experience and observation. These judgements can be falsified by empirical evidence, such as the statement 'the sun will rise tomorrow', which relies on past experience but cannot be definitively proven.
Theory of Causality
Hume's theory of causality challenges the traditional notion of cause and effect. He argues that causation is not a necessary connection but rather a habit of thought formed by repeated observations of events that appear together. Causality, therefore, lacks a rational underpinning and is based on custom and experience.
Theory of Self and Personal Identity
Hume posits that there is no permanent self or identity that exists over time. Instead, the self is a bundle of perceptions constantly in flux. Personal identity is constructed through the continuity and coherence of memories and experiences, rather than a singular, unchanging essence.
Scepticism
Hume's scepticism arises from his inquiries into human understanding, especially regarding knowledge of the external world and the limits of reason. He suggests that many of our beliefs lack rational justification, leading to a cautious approach to knowledge claims. His scepticism particularly targets metaphysical claims and the certainty of empirical knowledge.
Kant: Conception of critical Philosophy, distinction between a priori and a posteriori judgements, distinction between analytical and synthetic judgements, Possibility of synthetic a priori judgements, Copernican revolution
Kant: Conception of Critical Philosophy
Critical Philosophy
Kant's critical philosophy aims to explore the limits and scope of human reason. It focuses on the conditions that make knowledge possible, questioning traditional metaphysics and asserting that we can only attain knowledge of phenomena, not noumena.
A Priori and A Posteriori Judgements
A priori judgements are independent of experience and are universally applicable, such as mathematical truths. A posteriori judgements rely on experience and empirical evidence, such as scientific observations. Kant's distinction emphasizes how knowledge is validated.
Analytical and Synthetic Judgements
Analytical judgements are true by definition and do not add to our knowledge (e.g., all bachelors are unmarried). Synthetic judgements expand our understanding by connecting different concepts (e.g., the cat is black). Kant explores the implications of these categories in epistemology.
Possibility of Synthetic A Priori Judgements
Kant argues for the existence of synthetic a priori judgements, which provide new knowledge that is necessarily true yet not derived from experience. Examples include fundamental principles of mathematics and certain laws of nature, establishing a foundation for scientific inquiry.
Copernican Revolution in Philosophy
Kant's Copernican revolution refers to the shift in perspective that knowledge arises from the interaction of the mind and the world, as opposed to merely reflecting the external world. It emphasizes that our understanding shapes our experiences, which is a radical departure from prior philosophical thought.
