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Semester 4: Political Science Undergraduate Programme
Ancient Thought In West: Pre-Socratic Thought: Epicureans, Stoics, Plato, Aristotle
Ancient Thought In West: Pre-Socratic Thought: Epicureans, Stoics, Plato, Aristotle
Pre-Socratic Philosophers
Pre-Socratic thinkers laid the foundation for Western philosophy by questioning traditional cosmological and metaphysical beliefs. Key figures include Thales, who proposed that water is the fundamental substance of the universe, and Heraclitus, who emphasized change as a constant. These philosophers sought natural explanations for phenomena rather than relying on mythology.
Epicureanism
Founded by Epicurus, this philosophy stressed the pursuit of happiness through modest pleasures and the cultivation of friendships. Epicureans distinguished between natural and vain desires, advocating for a simple life to achieve tranquility (ataraxia) and minimize pain (aponia). They also introduced the idea of a universe governed by chance rather than divine intervention.
Stoicism
Stoicism, established by Zeno of Citium, taught the importance of virtue, reason, and self-control. Stoics believed in accepting the natural order of the universe and focusing on what is within our control. Major figures include Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, who emphasized mental resilience and ethical behavior as paths to true happiness.
Plato
Plato, a student of Socrates, founded the Academy in Athens and wrote dialogues exploring justice, beauty, and equality. He introduced the Theory of Forms, suggesting that the material world is an imperfect reflection of a higher reality consisting of eternal Forms, or Ideas. His work 'The Republic' outlines his vision of an ideal state governed by philosopher-kings.
Aristotle
A student of Plato, Aristotle introduced empirical observation and systematic classification in philosophy and science. His writings encompass various subjects, including metaphysics, ethics, politics, and biology. Aristotle's concept of virtue ethics emphasizes the importance of character and the 'Golden Mean'—the desirable middle between extremes in behavior.
Medieval Thought in West: Cicero, Thomas Aquinas and St Augustine, Renaissance, The Church-State Controversy
Medieval Thought in West: Cicero, Thomas Aquinas and St Augustine, Renaissance, The Church-State Controversy
Cicero's Influence on Medieval Thought
Cicero's works laid the foundation for later political and philosophical discourse. His ideas on natural law and the role of the state influenced medieval thinkers. Cicero emphasized the importance of virtue in governance and the moral responsibilities of citizens.
St Augustine's Contributions
St Augustine integrated Christian theology with classical philosophy. His ideas on original sin and divine grace shaped medieval Christian thought. Augustine's concept of the City of God contrasted with the earthly city, influencing political philosophy and the role of the Church.
Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism
Thomas Aquinas synthesized Aristotelian philosophy with Christian doctrine. His works addressed ethics, law, and the role of reason in understanding faith. Aquinas asserted that faith and reason are complementary, and his ideas on natural law had lasting impacts on Western political thought.
Renaissance Humanism
The Renaissance marked a revival of interest in classical texts and humanism. Thinkers like Erasmus and More challenged medieval perspectives and emphasized human potential and ethical living. This shift led to new ideas about governance, individual rights, and the relationship between society and the state.
The Church-State Controversy
The relationship between the Church and state was a key issue during the medieval period. Conflicts over authority, such as the Investiture Controversy, highlighted the struggle for power between secular and ecclesiastical authorities. This controversy paved the way for later developments in political theory regarding governance and individual freedoms.
Modern political thought: Machiavelli, Austin, Jean Bodin
Modern political thought: Machiavelli, Austin, Jean Bodin
Niccolò Machiavelli
Machiavelli is considered the father of modern political science. His most famous work, The Prince, emphasizes realpolitik, the importance of effective governance, and the sometimes harsh realities of political power. He argues that ends often justify the means, and that a ruler should be pragmatic rather than idealistic.
John Austin
Austin is best known for his work in legal positivism. He asserted that law is a command issued by a sovereign and that it is separate from morals or ethics. His theories focus on the relationships between law and society, emphasizing the importance of understanding law as it is, rather than how it ought to be.
Jean Bodin
Bodin was a French philosopher credited with developing the concept of sovereignty. He argued that a sovereign power is necessary for order in society and that this power must be absolute to effectively govern. His ideas paved the way for the modern nation-state and influenced subsequent theories of justice and governance.
Social Contractarians: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, J.J Rousseau
Social Contractarians: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, J.J. Rousseau
Overview of Social Contract Theory
Social contract theory explores the legitimacy of authority and the origin of society. It asserts that individuals consent, explicitly or implicitly, to surrender some of their freedoms in exchange for protection and the benefits of organized society.
Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes presented his views in Leviathan. He proposed that in a pre-contract state, life was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short. He argued for a powerful sovereign to maintain order and prevent chaos. The social contract, for Hobbes, was about security and authority.
John Locke
Locke, in his work Two Treatises of Government, offered a more optimistic view. He believed people were capable of self-governance and favored a government that derives its power from the consent of the governed. Unlike Hobbes, Locke emphasized natural rights such as life, liberty, and property.
J.J. Rousseau
In The Social Contract, Rousseau argued that the social contract should be based on the collective will of the people, or general will. He stressed the importance of equality and believed that legitimate political authority stems from the collective agreement of the people.
Comparative Analysis
While Hobbes placed emphasis on security and a strong central authority, Locke focused on individual rights and limited government. Rousseau introduced the concept of collective will, critiquing inequality and striving for freedom through community engagement.
Implications of Social Contract Theory
The social contract theories of these thinkers laid the foundation for modern political thought. They have influenced democratic principles, human rights discourse, and discussions on governmental authority and legitimacy.
Enlightenment and Liberalism: Immanuel Kant, Edmund Burke, Jeremy Bentham, J S Mill, T.M. Green
Enlightenment and Liberalism: Immanuel Kant, Edmund Burke, Jeremy Bentham, J S Mill, T.M. Green
Immanuel Kant
Kant emphasized the importance of reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy. His philosophical work laid the groundwork for modern liberal thought. He argued for autonomy and the moral law within, leading to ideas about rights and citizenship.
Edmund Burke
Burke is often associated with traditional conservatism. He critiqued radical Enlightenment ideas and emphasized the importance of tradition and gradual change. His views provide a counterpoint to Enlightenment rationalism, advocating for historical context in political thought.
Jeremy Bentham
Bentham is known for founding utilitarianism, promoting the greatest happiness principle as a moral basis for legislation. His work introduced a more empirical approach to ethics and governance, influencing liberal thought around rights and law.
J S Mill
Mill expanded on utilitarianism and introduced concepts of liberty and individual freedom. He argued for the protection of individual rights against societal norms and state interference, thereby reinforcing liberal democratic values.
T.M. Green
Green focused on the ethical dimensions of liberty, proposing that true freedom involves more than just absence of restraint. He emphasized social justice and the role of the state in enhancing individual capabilities, contributing to the development of modern welfare liberalism.
G W Hegel, Karl Marx, Lenin
G W Hegel, Karl Marx, Lenin
G W Hegel
Hegel was a German philosopher known for his contributions to idealism. He emphasized the development of self-consciousness and the dialectical method, which involves thesis-antithesis-synthesis to explain the progress of ideas. His concept of the absolute spirit encompasses history, culture, and society. Hegel's work laid the foundation for subsequent political philosophy.
Karl Marx
Marx was a philosopher and economist whose ideas on class struggle, historical materialism, and the critique of capitalism have been influential in political theory. He argued that history is driven by economic forces and class relations. Marx's analysis of capitalism highlights the exploitation of the working class, which he termed the proletariat, and his revolutionary theories aimed at initiating a social transformation.
Lenin
Vladimir Lenin was a revolutionary leader and theorist who adapted Marx's ideas to the Russian context. He developed the concept of a vanguard party to lead the proletariat in revolution. Lenin's theories on imperialism and the role of the state in a socialist society have had significant implications on the practice of communism. His leadership during the Russian Revolution marked a pivotal moment in 20th-century politics.
Mary Wollstonecraft, Simone De Beauvoir, Rosa Luxemburg
Mary Wollstonecraft, Simone De Beauvoir, Rosa Luxemburg
Mary Wollstonecraft
Wollstonecraft is considered one of the first feminist philosophers. Her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman argues for women's education and rationality. She critiques the societal norms that perpetuate women's dependence on men. Her ideas laid the groundwork for later feminist theories and are significant in understanding gender equality.
Simone De Beauvoir
De Beauvoir's seminal work The Second Sex examines the construction of women's identities and the oppression they face. She argues that one is not born a woman, but rather becomes one through societal conditioning. De Beauvoir emphasizes the importance of economic independence and freedom in women's liberation, making her a central figure in existentialist feminism.
Rosa Luxemburg
Luxemburg was a Marxist theorist and revolutionary who advocated for socialism and workers' rights. Her writings emphasize the importance of class struggle and the role of women in the labor movement. She believed in the necessity of a revolutionary approach to socialism, critiquing both reformist strategies and the oppression of women within the labor movement.
John Rawls, Michael J. Oakeshott and Hannah Arendt
John Rawls, Michael J. Oakeshott and Hannah Arendt in Political Science
John Rawls
John Rawls is known for his theory of justice as fairness. He introduced the idea of the original position and the veil of ignorance as a way to determine the principles of justice that would govern a society. His major work, A Theory of Justice, emphasizes the importance of equal basic rights, equality of opportunity, and improving the conditions of the least advantaged in society. Rawls's approach is often viewed as a contrast to utilitarianism and has significantly influenced modern political philosophy.
Michael J. Oakeshott
Michael Oakeshott's philosophy is characterized by his skepticism towards rationalism in political thought. He argued for the importance of tradition and the historical context in understanding politics. Oakeshott's key works include On Human Conduct and Rationalism in Politics, where he critiques the idea that politics should be based solely on rational principles. He advocates for a more nuanced understanding of human behavior and the role of historical experience in governance.
Hannah Arendt
Hannah Arendt's contributions to political theory include her analysis of totalitarianism, authority, and the nature of power. In works like The Human Condition and The Origins of Totalitarianism, she explored the implications of political action, the importance of public space, and the concept of the 'banality of evil' in the context of the Holocaust. Arendt's work emphasizes the significance of individual agency and the moral responsibilities of citizens within a political community.
