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Semester 2: Introduction to Psychology II
Cognition - Types, Mental Imagery, Problem Solving, Decision Making, Reasoning, Language
Cognition
Types of Cognition
Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. Main types include perception, attention, memory, language, reasoning, and decision-making.
Mental Imagery
Mental imagery involves experiencing a sensory impression in the absence of external stimuli. It plays a crucial role in problem-solving and creativity, enabling individuals to visualize concepts and scenarios.
Problem Solving
Problem solving is the cognitive process of finding solutions to difficult or complex issues. It encompasses several steps: identifying the problem, generating potential solutions, evaluating options, and implementing a solution.
Decision Making
Decision making is a cognitive process of selecting a course of action from multiple alternatives. Influenced by rational analysis and emotional factors, it involves evaluating risks and benefits.
Reasoning
Reasoning is the mental process of drawing conclusions based on premises or information. It can be deductive (general to specific) or inductive (specific to general), each serving a different purpose in knowledge acquisition.
Language
Language is a complex cognitive function that involves the ability to communicate using symbols, sounds, and gestures. It plays an integral role in shaping thoughts, expressing ideas, and facilitating social interactions.
Memory - Definitions, Encoding, Storage, Retrieval, Forgetting, Study Strategies
Memory
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Memory is the mental faculty of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. It is essential for learning and influences behavior and personality.
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Encoding is the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory. Different types of encoding include visual, acoustic, and semantic.
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Storage refers to maintaining information over time. Memory stores information in three main stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
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Retrieval is the process of accessing and bringing stored information into consciousness. Techniques include recalling, recognizing, and relearning.
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Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information. It can occur due to decay theory, interference theory, or retrieval failure.
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Effective study strategies include spaced repetition, elaborative rehearsal, self-testing, and using mnemonic devices to enhance memory retention.
Motivation - Meaning, Types, Theories including Maslow and ERG
Motivation
Meaning of Motivation
Motivation refers to the processes that initiate, guide, and maintain goal-oriented behaviors. It involves biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior.
Types of Motivation
1. Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by internal rewards, such as personal satisfaction or enjoyment in the task itself. 2. Extrinsic Motivation: Motivation driven by external rewards, such as money, fame, or recognition.
Theories of Motivation
Various theories explain motivation, including but not limited to the following:
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow proposed a pyramid of human needs, ranging from basic physiological needs at the bottom to self-actualization at the top. The levels include: 1. Physiological Needs 2. Safety Needs 3. Love and Belongingness 4. Esteem Needs 5. Self-Actualization
ERG Theory
Alderfer's ERG Theory condenses Maslow's five levels into three categories: 1. Existence Needs: Basic material requirements. 2. Relatedness Needs: Interpersonal relationships. 3. Growth Needs: Personal development and fulfillment.
Intelligence - Definitions, Theories, Intelligence Testing, Emotional Intelligence
Intelligence
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Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills. It encompasses reasoning, problem-solving, learning, and adapting to new situations.
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Spearman's Two-Factor Theory
Proposes that intelligence consists of a general factor (g) and specific factors (s). The g factor represents overall cognitive ability.
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Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
Suggests that there are multiple types of intelligence, including linguistic, mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.
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Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
Poses that intelligence has three components: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
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Intelligence tests are standardized measures used to assess individuals' cognitive abilities. Common tests include the IQ test, Wechsler scales, and Stanford-Binet test.
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Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage one's own emotions, as well as the emotions of others. It plays a crucial role in personal and professional relationships.
Personality - Definitions, Psychoanalytic, Trait Theories, Jung's Typology, Assessment
Personality
Definitions
Personality refers to the consistent and enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that make an individual unique. It encompasses a range of characteristics, including traits, habits, and emotional responses.
Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalytic theories, primarily developed by Sigmund Freud, emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and early life experiences on personality development. Key concepts include the id, ego, and superego, as well as defense mechanisms and psychosexual stages of development.
Trait Theories
Trait theories focus on identifying and measuring the individual traits that make up personality. Prominent theories include the Five Factor Model, which highlights openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism as the core dimensions of personality.
Jung's Typology
Carl Jung proposed a typological approach to personality, introducing concepts such as introversion and extraversion, as well as the four cognitive functions: thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition. These dimensions contribute to the understanding of individual differences in behavior and preferences.
Assessment
Personality assessment involves various tools and techniques to measure and evaluate an individual's personality traits and characteristics. Common methods include self-report questionnaires, projective tests, and behavioral assessments, each providing insights into the personality structure.
