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IGNOU BHDC-132 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. निम्नलिखित पद्यांशों में से किसी एक की संदर्भ सहित व्याख्या कीजिए : 20 (क) यहु तन जालौं मसि करौं, लिखाँ राम का नाऊँ। लेखणि करौं करंक की, लिखि लिखि राम पठाऊँ॥ (ख) पिर सौं कहेहु संदेसरा, ऐ भँवरा ऐ काग। सो धनि बिरहें जरि गई, तेहिक धुआँ हम लाग॥ (ग) तन की दुति स्याम सरोरुह लोचन, कंज की मंजुलताई हरें। अति सुंदर सोहत धूरि भरे, छबि भूरि अनंग की दूरि करें॥ बालक दतियाँ दुति-दामिनि ज्यों, किलकैं कल बाल-विनोद करें। अवधेस के बालक चारि सदा, तुलसी-मन-मंदिर में बिहरें॥

Ans. (a) यहु तन जालौं मसि करौं, लिखाँ राम का नाऊँ। लेखणि करौं करंक की, लिखि लिखि राम पठाऊँ॥ (I will burn this body to make ink, and write the name of Ram. I will make a pen of my bones, and repeatedly write and send it to Ram.) Context: The given couplet ( Sakhi ) is composed by Kabirdas , the leading poet of the Gyanshrayi (knowledge-centric) branch of the Nirguna school of poetry during the Bhaktikal (Devotional Period) of Hindi literature. This Sakhi is taken from the section ‘Birah Kau Ang’ (On the Pain of Separation) in his work ‘Kabir Granthavali’. In it, Kabir portrays the extreme state of virah (separation) of the individual soul (Jivatma) from the Supreme Soul (Paramatma). Immediate Context: In this couplet, the pining soul, in separation from her beloved Supreme Being (Ram), expresses the peak of her desperation and devotion to send a message of her anguish. She wishes to use her own body as a medium to write a letter to her beloved. Explanation: Kabirdas states, through the voice of the separated soul: “I will burn this body and make ink ( masi ) out of it, and with that ink, I will write the name of my beloved ‘Ram’. I will make a pen ( lekhani ) out of my bones ( karank ), and with that pen, I will repeatedly write Ram’s name and keep sending it to him.” Here, the soul’s intense desire to attain the beloved, even by obliterating its own physical existence, is expressed. This is not an ordinary state of separation but a condition where the lover turns their very being into a medium for expressing love. Special/Poetic Features:

• There is an extremely intense and poignant expression of the pain of separation.
• The phrase ‘likhi likhi’ (writing again and again) uses the figure of speech punaruktiprakash alankar (repetition for emphasis), expressing continuity and eagerness.
• The entire couplet employs the atishayokti alankar (hyperbole) beautifully, elevating the intensity of the emotion to its zenith.
• The language is Sadhukkadi , a mix of various dialects, with words chosen to suit the emotion.
• Kabir’s ‘Ram’ is not the son of Dasharatha but the formless, attributeless, all-pervading Absolute (Parabrahma).
• The style is symbolic and emotional.

(b) पिर सौं कहेहु संदेसरा, ऐ भँवरा ऐ काग। सो धनि बिरहें जरि गई, तेहिक धुआँ हम लाग॥ (O bumblebee, O crow, go and give this message to my beloved. That your wife has burned to death in the fire of separation, and it is the smoke from her pyre that has made us black.)

Context:

These lines are quoted from the ‘Nagmativiyog-Khand’ section of the epic

‘Padmavat’

, composed by the greatest poet of the Premmargi (Sufi) school of the Bhakti period,

Malik Muhammad Jayasi

. This section is considered an unparalleled depiction of separation in Hindi literature.

Immediate Context:

These lines movingly depict the state of Queen Nagmati’s separation after her husband, King Ratnasen, leaves Chittor for Simhaldweep. Nagmati wants to send a message of her pain to her beloved through a bumblebee and a crow.

Explanation:

The distraught Queen Nagmati addresses a bumblebee and a crow, saying, “O bumblebee! O crow! Go and deliver this message to my beloved (husband) that his ‘dhani’ (wife, Nagmati) has burned to death in the fire of separation. The smoke that arose from her burning is what has made us (the bee and the crow) black.” Here, Nagmati uses this imaginative conceit to express the terrifying intensity of her fire of separation, suggesting that the natural black color of the bee and crow is a result of the smoke from her pyre.

Special/Poetic Features:

• This is an extremely poignant and artistic depiction of the state of separation.
• The line ‘tehik dhuān ham lāg’ (the smoke from that has touched us) is an excellent example of atishayokti alankar (hyperbole).
• The poet’s use of common messengers from folklore (bee, crow) makes the emotion accessible and effective.
• The language is rustic Awadhi , which reflects the rural setting and the naturalness of the emotion.
• This couplet is a fine example of the Masnavi style characteristic of Sufi poetry.

(c) तन की दुति स्याम सरोरुह लोचन, कंज की मंजुलताई हरें। अति सुंदर सोहत धूरि भरे, छबि भूरि अनंग की दूरि करें॥… (The radiance of their bodies is like a blue lotus, their eyes steal the beauty of the lotus flower itself. Covered in dust, they look exceedingly beautiful, dispelling the immense charm of the god of love, Ananga…)

Context:

This stanza is from the ‘Balkand’ section of ‘Kavitavali’, composed by the pre-eminent poet of the Ram Bhakti branch of the

Saguna school

,

Goswami Tulsidas

. In it, Tulsidas paints a charming picture of the childhood beauty of the four princes of Ayodhya – Ram, Bharat, Lakshman, and Shatrughna.

Immediate Context:

The poet, while describing the childhood play and divine beauty of the four sons of King Dasharath, expresses his feelings of parental love (vatsalya) and devotion towards them.

Explanation:

Tulsidas says that the radiance (duti) of the bodies of the four princes is like that of a blue lotus (syām saroruh), and their eyes surpass the beauty of the lotus (kanj) itself. Covered in dust, they look so exceedingly beautiful that their charm puts to shame the immense beauty of Kamadeva (Ananga, the god of love). When they laugh, revealing their tiny teeth and engaging in charming childhood games (bāl-vinod), the flash of their teeth is like lightning (dāmini). Tulsidas concludes by wishing that these four children of Avadhesh (King Dasharath) may forever frolic in the temple of his heart.

Special/Poetic Features:

• There is a wonderful blend of Tulsidas’s dāsya bhāva (devotion as a servant) and vātsalya ras (parental affection).
• The language is a lyrical and graceful Brajbhasha .
• Figures of Speech:
  • ‘Syām saroruh’ (blue lotus body) and ‘man-mandir’ (temple of the mind) use rupak alankar (metaphor).
  • ‘Lochan, kanj kī manjulātāī harē’ (eyes steal the beauty of the lotus) uses vyatirek alankar (a form of comparison where the object of comparison is shown superior to the standard of comparison).
  • ‘Duti-dāmini jyo’ (flash like lightning) uses upamā alankar (simile).
  • Alliteration is beautifully used throughout the stanza.
• The meter is Kavitta , a prominent छंद (meter) in Brajbhasha poetry.
• The depiction of childhood beauty is extremely vivid and captivating.

Q2. सगुण भक्तिकाव्य की विशेषताएँ बताइए। (Explain the characteristics of Saguna Bhakti poetry.)

Ans. During the Bhakti period (Bhakikal), two major streams of devotion emerged – Nirguna (attributeless) and Saguna (with attributes). The Saguna school of devotional poetry emphasizes the worship of God in a manifest, personified form. Within this tradition, God is conceived as having a specific form, qualities, name, and divine plays ( lilas ). Saguna Bhakti is further divided into two sub-branches: the Ram Bhakti branch and the Krishna Bhakti branch . The main characteristics of Saguna Bhakti poetry are as follows:

• Worship of God in a Manifest Form: Saguna poets worshipped the human forms of God’s avatars, especially Rama and Krishna. They considered God to be compassionate, gracious, fond of his devotees ( bhakta-vatsal ), and the destroyer of evil.
• Belief in Avatarvad (Incarnation): Saguna devotees believed that whenever righteousness (dharma) declines and unrighteousness (adharma) increases on earth, God takes an incarnation to re-establish dharma. Rama and Krishna are such avatars of Vishnu.
• Singing of Lilas (Divine Plays): Saguna poets extensively sang about the lilas of their chosen deity. Krishna-Bhakti poets sang of Krishna’s childhood plays ( bal-lila ) and cosmic dance ( ras-lila ), while Ram-Bhakti poets described the entire life story of Rama.
• Various Forms of Devotion: Saguna Bhakti gives importance to Navadha Bhakti (nine forms of devotion: listening, chanting, remembering, serving the feet, offering, prostrating, servitude, friendship, and self-surrender). Among these, Dāsya Bhāva (servitude, as in Tulsidas), Sakhya Bhāva (friendship, as in some of Surdas’s verses), and Mādhurya Bhāva (conjugal love, as in Meera Bai, Surdas) were prominent.
• Importance of the Guru: Similar to Nirguna Bhakti, the guru is considered a guide to attaining God in Saguna Bhakti as well. Both Tulsidas and Surdas respectfully remembered their gurus.
• Use of Vernacular Languages: Saguna poets used the common people’s languages, Brajbhasha and Awadhi , instead of Sanskrit. Surdas composed in Brajbhasha, while Tulsidas primarily used both Awadhi and Brajbhasha.
• Spirit of Public Welfare (Lok-Mangal): Ram-Bhakti poetry, in particular, placed great emphasis on the welfare of the people and the establishment of social order. Tulsidas’s ‘Ramcharitmanas’ is the best example, presenting a blueprint for an ideal society.
• Depiction of Rasas: Along with Bhakti Rasa (devotional sentiment), Saguna poetry saw a magnificent culmination of Vātsalya Rasa (parental love) and Shringār Rasa (romantic love, in both union and separation). Surdas is hailed as the emperor of Vatsalya Rasa.

In essence, Saguna Bhakti poetry establishes a personal and emotional relationship with God and provides a positive direction to society by presenting life’s ideals.

Q3. रीतिकाव्य की साहित्यिक प्रवृत्तियों का परिचय दीजिए। (Introduce the literary trends of Ritikavya.)

Ans. In the history of Hindi literature, the period from approximately 1700 CE to 1900 CE is known as the ‘Ritikal’ (The Age of Poetics). The word ‘Riti’ means system, style, or the method of composing based on the elements of poetry (Kavyanga). During this era, most poets composed ‘Lakshan-Granthas’ (treatises on poetics) based on the principles of Sanskrit poetics (like Rasa, Alankar, Chhand, Nayika-Bhed) or created poetry following these prescribed methods. The main literary trends (characteristics) of Ritikavya are as follows:

• Trend of Poetic Treatises (Riti-Nirupan): The foremost trend of this period was the creation of texts on poetics. Following the Sanskrit Acharyas, poets presented definitions (lakshan) and examples (udaharan) for various elements of poetry like rasa (sentiment), alankar (figure of speech), nayika-bhed (classification of heroines), etc. Based on this, the poets of this era are divided into three categories: Ritibaddha (bound by poetics, e.g., Keshavdas, Chintamani), Ritisiddha (mastered poetics but didn’t write treatises, e.g., Bihari), and Ritimukta (free from conventions, e.g., Ghananand, Alam).
• Eroticism (Shringarikta): The poetry of Ritikal is predominantly that of Shringār Rasa (romantic/erotic sentiment). It contains detailed descriptions of both union (sanyog) and separation (viyog). The primary subjects were the head-to-toe description (nakh-shikh varnan) of the heroine and the amorous activities of the hero and heroine in different seasons. Influenced by the courtly atmosphere, this eroticism often became sensual and hedonistic.
• Praise of Patrons (Rajprashasti): Most Ritikal poets found patronage in the court of some king or feudal lord. Therefore, for their livelihood, they had to compose poetry in praise of their patrons.
• Ornate Style and Display of Artifice: Poets of this era focused more on the artistic aspect (Kala-paksh) than the emotional content (Bhav-paksh). Their main goal was to adorn poetry with figures of speech and to create a sense of wonder through their poetic dexterity. Poets like Bihari accomplished the feat of “filling the ocean in a pitcher” by packing immense meaning into a small meter like a doha.
• Portrayal of Women: In Ritikal, women were primarily seen as objects of pleasure and the focus of love. More attention was paid to her physical beauty, especially the ‘nakh-shikh’ description. Her roles as a mother, sister, or goddess were largely ignored. A more respectful and emotional attitude towards women is found only in the poetry of Ritimukta poets (like Ghananand).
• Excellence of Brajbhasha: The primary language of Ritikavya was Brajbhasha . During this period, Brajbhasha reached its literary zenith. The language exhibits a wonderful combination of sweetness, softness, and elegance.
• Didacticism and Devotion: Despite the dominance of eroticism, some poets also composed works related to ethics (niti) and devotion (bhakti). The ethical couplets of poets like Bihari and Vrind are popular even today. Devotional sentiment is also found in the works of many poets, either in invocations or as independent verses.

In conclusion, Ritikal is an era of courtly-influenced, art-centric, and predominantly erotic poetry, where special emphasis was placed on poetic skill and the display of artifice.

Q4. रविदास की कविताओं में अभिव्यक्त भक्तिभावना का उदाहरण सहित विवेचन कीजिए। (Discuss the devotional sentiment expressed in the poems of Ravidas with examples.)

Ans. Sant Ravidas (also known as Raidas) was a prominent poet of the Gyanshrayi (Nirguna) branch of the Bhakti period. He is considered a contemporary of Kabir, and his devotional sentiment shows a remarkable blend of depth, simplicity, and social concern. The main features of the devotional sentiment expressed in his poetry, with examples, are as follows: 1. Devotion of Servitude (Dasya Bhava): Ravidas’s devotion is primarily of the dāsya bhāva . He considers himself a humble servant and his deity as the all-powerful Master. The feeling of surrender and humility is paramount in his devotion. Example: “Prabhu ji, tum chandan hum pani. Jaki ang-ang bas samani॥” (O Lord, you are sandalwood, and I am water. Your fragrance permeates every part of my being.) In this famous verse, he calls God sandalwood and himself water, expressing his desire to merge completely with his Lord, just as sandalwood dissolves and spreads its fragrance in water. 2. Concept of a Formless God (Nirguna): Ravidas’s God is not one who resides in a temple or mosque or has a specific form or color. He is attributeless, formless, omnipresent , and resides in every being. Although he addresses Him with Saguna names like Ram, Raghunath, Govind, and Hari, his reference is always to the formless Absolute (Brahman). Example: “Ab kaise chhutai Ram naam rat laagi.” (Now, how can I stop chanting the name of Ram?) Here, ‘Ram’ is not the king of Ayodhya but the all-pervading Supreme Element. 3. Emphasis on Chanting the Name (Naam-Smaran): For Ravidas, the simplest and most effective path to God-realization is chanting the Lord’s name. He believed that one can cross the ocean of existence only by chanting the Lord’s name with a true heart. 4. Social Equality and Opposition to the Caste System: Ravidas himself belonged to the leather-worker (chamar) caste and had experienced the sting of caste-based discrimination. His devotion is imbued with a demand for social equality. He believed that everyone has the right to devotion, regardless of the caste or family they are born into. Example: “Raidas janam kai karanai, hot na kou neech. Nar ku neech kari dari hai, ochhe karam ki keech॥” (No one is lowly because of their birth. It is a person’s vile deeds that make them lowly.) 5. Rejection of External Rituals: Like Kabir, Ravidas also condemned external rituals and hypocrisies such as pilgrimages, idol worship, fasting (roza), and prayer (namaz). He considered inner purity and sanctity of the mind to be true devotion. He imagined an ideal society called ‘Begumpura’ (the city without sorrow), where there is no discrimination, suffering, or anxiety. In conclusion, Ravidas’s devotional sentiment is the call of a true, simple heart that wants to connect directly with the Divine, breaking free from social bondages. His devotion is a unique confluence of self-surrender, humility, social consciousness, and profound spiritual experience.

Q5. कबीर की सामाजिक चेतना पर प्रकाश डालिए। (Shed light on the social consciousness of Kabir.)

Ans. Sant Kabir was not just a great poet of the Bhakti period but also a formidable social reformer . His poetry is a living document of his deep social consciousness. He lived in an era when society was plagued by religious hypocrisy, caste discrimination, superstition, and social evils. Kabir fearlessly attacked all these through his sakhis (couplets) and pads (verses). Kabir’s social consciousness can be understood through the following points:

• Strong Opposition to the Caste System: Kabir considered the caste system the greatest enemy of humanity and attacked it fiercely. He rejected the notion of anyone being high or low based on birth and emphasized the superiority of one’s actions (karma). Example: “Jati-panti puchhai nahin koi. Hari ko bhajai so Hari ka hoi॥” (No one should ask about caste or creed. Whoever worships God belongs to God.)
• Denunciation of Religious Hypocrisy and Rituals: Kabir strongly criticized the hypocrisy and external rituals prevalent in both Hinduism and Islam. He mocked practices like idol worship, pilgrimages, fasting, roza, namaz, and the call to prayer (azaan), stating that God is found through purity of heart, not these external acts. Example (on Hindus): “Pahan puje Hari milen, to main pujoun pahar.” (If worshipping a stone can lead to God, I would worship a mountain.) Example (on Muslims): “Kankar pathar jori kai, masjid layi banay. Ta chadhi mulla bang de, kya bahra hua Khuday॥” (By joining stones and pebbles, a mosque was built. The Mulla climbs it and shouts the call to prayer; has God gone deaf?)
• Advocate of Hindu-Muslim Unity: Kabir rebuked the extremists of both communities, stating that Ram and Rahim are two names for the same God. He urged people to forget their differences and live together in love. He was a follower of a religion whose foundation was humanity.
• Attack on Social Evils: Kabir also attacked other prevalent social evils like discrimination between high and low, untouchability, and the arrogance of wealth. He stressed a simple life and high thinking.
• View on Women: While on one hand, Kabir condemned women as a symbol of ‘Maya’ (illusion), on the other, he also praised the ‘pativrata’ (chaste and devoted wife) and the pious woman. His opposition to women was essentially an opposition to the ‘kamini’ (seductress) who is an obstacle for a spiritual seeker, not to women in general.
• Language and Style: To express his social consciousness, Kabir used a simple, colloquial language called Sadhukkadi . He used a satirical style and Ulatbansis (upside-down language/enigmatic verses) to awaken a slumbering society.

In conclusion, Kabir’s social consciousness was extremely sharp and revolutionary. He was a true leader of the people who identified the weaknesses of society and waged a powerful literary and ideological struggle to reform them. His message remains relevant even today.

Q6. मीराबाई की कविताओं पर विभिन्‍न संप्रदायों के प्रभाव की समीक्षा कीजिए। (Review the influence of various sects on the poems of Meera Bai.)

Ans. Meera Bai was an unparalleled devotee of the Krishna Bhakti branch of the Bhakti period. Her devotion was primarily of the mādhurya bhāva (conjugal love), in which she worshipped Krishna considering herself his lover or wife. Although she was not formally initiated into any sect, the influence of various contemporary devotional practices and sects is clearly visible in her poetry. A review of the influences on Meera Bai’s poetry is as follows:

• Influence of the Vallabha Sect (Pushtimarg): The central theme of Meera’s poetry is the divine plays (lilas) of Krishna, especially his enchanting form and childhood activities. This is a key feature of Pushtimarg. However, the Vallabha sect emphasizes the dual worship of Radha-Krishna, whereas in Meera’s devotion, Radha is mentioned less, and Meera presents herself as Krishna’s beloved. Nevertheless, the devotion to the manifest, personal form of Krishna and the spirit of service (seva) can be seen as an influence of Pushtimarg.
• Influence of the Chaitanya Sect: In Chaitanya Mahaprabhu’s Gaudiya sect, special emphasis is placed on devotion through ecstatic dancing and chanting (kirtan). Meera’s verses are also lyrical and have a deep element of music and dance. Her statement, ‘Pag ghunghroo bandh Meera nachi re’ (Tying bells on her ankles, Meera danced), reflects this influence. In its intense emotionalism and ecstatic state, Meera’s poetry seems close to the Chaitanya sect.
• Influence of the Nirguna Sant Mat: In many places, Meera’s poetry contains vocabulary and sentiments similar to those of the Nirguna saints. The importance of the guru, the transience of the world, emphasis on chanting the name, and the company of yogis are recurring themes in her verses. Words like ‘Satguru’, ‘surat-nirat ka diva’, and ‘gagan mandal’ indicate the influence of the Nath Panth and Nirguna saints. Example: “Payo ji mhen to Ram ratan dhan payo. Satguru kirpa kari apnayo.” (I have found the jewel-like wealth of Ram’s name. The true guru’s grace helped me attain it.) Here, the use of the word ‘Ram’ also seems to connote the formless Absolute.
• Influence of the Sufi Path of Love: Like the Sufi poets, Meera’s poetry contains a very poignant expression of the ‘pain of love’ (virah-vedana). The longing for the beloved, self-surrender, and eagerness for union are similar to the Sufi concept of Ishq-e-Haqeeqi (divine love).

Conclusion:

Upon review, it is clear that Meera Bai’s devotion was not confined within the narrow boundaries of any single sect. Her devotion was an independent and personal experience that drew inspiration and elements from various devotional streams present in her environment. The fundamental basis of her devotion was her single-minded, exclusive, and conjugal love for Krishna, which she adorned with the colors of Saguna Bhakti, Nirguna philosophy, and Sufi-like pangs of separation. It is this synthesis and freedom that gives Meera a unique place among the Bhakti poets.

Q7. सूरदास के काव्य में अभिव्यक्त वात्सल्य एवं श्रृंगार का विवेचन कीजिए। (Discuss the expression of Vatsalya (parental love) and Shringar (romantic love) in Surdas’s poetry.)

Ans. Surdas, the foremost poet of the Krishna Bhakti branch of the Bhakti period, is hailed as the ‘Emperor of Vatsalya Rasa’ and the ‘King of Shringar Rasa’. The vivid, psychological, and poignant depiction of these two sentiments, alongside devotion, in his collection ‘Sur Sagar’ is rarely found elsewhere. Depiction of Vatsalya (Parental Love): Surdas’s depiction of vatsalya is unparalleled in world literature. He has painted an extremely subtle and psychological picture of Lord Krishna’s childhood activities (bal-lila). Surdas has immortalized every emotion arising in Yashoda’s heart for her son.

• Portrayal of Child Psychology: Surdas has masterfully depicted the natural actions of a child’s mind, such as crawling on all fours, lisping, being stubborn, stealing butter, and making innocent excuses to hide their mistakes. Example: “Maiya, main nahin makhan khayo.” (Mother, I did not eat the butter.) In this verse, the arguments that child Krishna presents to hide his theft are a brilliant example of child psychology.
• Affection of Parents: Surdas did not just depict Krishna’s actions but also vividly portrayed the parental love welling up in the hearts of mother Yashoda and Nanda. Their delight, anxiety, and adoration over every little act of their son feel extremely natural. Example: “Jasoda Hari palanain jhulavai. Halravai, dulravai, malhavai, joi-soi kachu gavai॥” (Yashoda rocks Hari in the cradle. She moves it, caresses him, and sings whatever comes to her mind.)

Acharya Ramchandra Shukla rightly said, “Surdas, with his closed eyes, has peered into every nook and corner of vatsalya.”

Depiction of Shringar (Romantic Love):

Surdas has described both the union (sanyog) and separation (viyog) aspects of romantic love in extensive and poignant detail. His depiction of shringar is restrained, imbued with devotional sentiment, and highly artistic.

• Sanyog Shringar (Love in Union): Here, Surdas has beautifully depicted the first meeting of Radha and Krishna, their love-play, the Raas-lila, and their amorous activities on the banks of the Yamuna. This portrayal is not sensual or obscene but extremely pure and attractive. Example: “Bujhat Syam kaun tu gori. Kahan rahati kaki hai beti, dekhi nahin kabahun Braj khori॥” (Krishna asks, “Who are you, fair lady? Where do you live, whose daughter are you? I have never seen you in the lanes of Braj.”)
• Viyog Shringar (Love in Separation): The best form of Surdas’s depiction of separation is found in the ‘Bhramargeet’ episode. The portrayal of the Gopis’ state of separation after Krishna’s departure to Mathura is extremely poignant. When Uddhav comes to give them the message of formless Brahman and yoga, the Gopis shatter his pride of knowledge with their logical replies. This episode is not just a narrative of separation but also a symbol of the victory of Saguna Bhakti over Nirguna Bhakti . This portrayal of the Gopis’ anguish, complaints (upalambh), and exclusive love for Krishna is a priceless treasure of Hindi literature.

In conclusion, Surdas, by demonstrating his imagination and psychological insight in the realms of vatsalya and shringar, took these sentiments to their zenith. His poetry is an ocean of these human emotions.

Q8. रहीम की काव्यभाषा और शैली पर प्रकाश डालिए। (Shed light on the poetic language and style of Rahim.)

Ans. Abdurrahim Khan-i-Khana, famous as ‘Rahim’, is a highly significant poet from the transitional period between Bhaktikal and Ritikal. Besides being one of Akbar’s ‘Navaratnas’ (nine jewels), a skilled commander, and an administrator, he was also a generous-hearted, multilingual, and excellent poet. His multifaceted personality is clearly reflected in his poetic language and style. Poetic Language: The greatest feature of Rahim’s poetic language is its simplicity, naturalness, and remarkable ability to convey emotion . The main characteristics of his language are:

• Primacy of Brajbhasha: Rahim primarily used Brajbhasha for his compositions, especially his couplets (dohas). His Brajbhasha is very refined, sweet, and fluent.
• Mixture of Various Languages: Due to his courtly environment and vast experience, Rahim’s language is a seamless blend of not only Brajbhasha but also Awadhi, Khari Boli, Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian words. This mixture is never jarring; rather, it clarifies the meaning. For instance, in lines like ‘Khair, khoon, khansi, khusi, bair, preeti, madpan,’ the use of Arabic-Persian words is beautiful.
• Use of Words from Folk Life: To make his point effectively, Rahim made ample use of words and idioms prevalent in common life. This allows his poetry to directly touch the hearts of ordinary people.
• Sanskritized Vocabulary: In works like his ‘Barvai Nayika Bhed’, where a classical treatment was required, he also used Sanskrit तत्सम (tatsama) vocabulary, which is a testament to his scholarship.

Poetic Style:

Rahim’s poetic style, like his thoughts, is clear, concise, and impactful.

• Muktak (Epigrammatic) Style: Rahim mainly composed in the muktak style. His dohas, sorthas, and barvais are self-contained and express a single emotion or thought with great intensity.
• Didactic and Aphoristic Style: Rahim is most famous for his didactic (niti) style. He presents profound life experiences through examples (drishtant) in very simple words. This style, though preachy, does not feel burdensome. He was a master of the art of “filling the ocean in a pitcher.” Example: “Rahiman dhaga prem ka, mat todo chatkay. Toote se phir na jude, jude gaanth pari jay॥” (Rahim says, do not snap the thread of love with a jerk. Once broken, it cannot be joined again; if it is, a knot remains.)
• Pictorial Quality and Imagery: Rahim creates a vivid picture through his words in his couplets. His examples are drawn from daily life, which helps the reader connect with the subject instantly (e.g., thread, tree, lake, potter’s pot).
• Use of Various Meters: Rahim successfully used many meters like Doha, Sortha, Barvai, Kavitta, Savaiya . His ‘Barvai’ meter is particularly famous, and it is believed that he was the one who gave it literary prestige.

In conclusion, Rahim’s poetic language and style are a beautiful reflection of his practical knowledge, liberal outlook, and deep human sensibility. His simple, sweet, and succinct style has earned him a place among the immortal poets of Hindi.

Q9. निम्नलिखित में से किन्हीं दो पर टिप्पणियाँ लिखिए : (क) रामभक्ति शाखा (ख) कबीर की भक्ति-भावना (ग) सतसई परंपरा और ‘बिहारी सतसई’ (घ) घनानंद के काव्य में लोक जीवन

Ans. (a) The Ram Bhakti Branch (Rāmbhakti Śākhā) The Ram Bhakti branch is an important sub-stream of the Saguna school of devotion within the Bhakti period, whose chosen deity is Lord Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu and the ‘Maryāda Puruṣottama’ (The Ideal Man). The propagation of this branch is attributed to Ramananda, but the credit for giving it literary and philosophical prestige goes to Goswami Tulsidas. The main features of this branch are:

• Nature of the Deity: In the Ram Bhakti branch, Rama is considered an avatar of the Supreme Brahman, a synthesis of power, virtue, and beauty. He is the ‘Maryada Purushottam’, presented as an ideal son, ideal husband, ideal brother, and ideal king.
• Devotion of Servitude (Dāsya Bhāva): This branch predominantly adopts the dāsya bhāva of devotion, where the devotee considers themself a servant and Rama their master.
• Spirit of Public Welfare (Lok-Mangal): The main objective of Rama-kavya is public welfare and the establishment of an ideal society. This poetry emphasizes the performance of social and familial duties more than individual spiritual practice.
• A Syncretic Approach: Through his poetry, Tulsidas made a successful attempt to establish harmony between various opposing schools of thought like Saguna-Nirguna, Jnana-Bhakti, and Shaivism-Vaishnavism.
• Major Text and Language: The foremost and representative text of this branch is Tulsidas’s ‘Ramcharitmanas’ , composed mainly in the Awadhi language. In addition, Tulsidas also wrote works like ‘Vinaypatrika’ and ‘Kavitavali’ in Brajbhasha.

The Ram Bhakti branch provided a strong moral and social foundation to Indian society.

(b) Kabir’s Devotional Sentiment (Kabīr kī Bhakti-Bhāvanā)

Kabirdas’s devotional sentiment represents the

Nirguna-Gyanshrayi branch

of the Bhakti period. It is an internal and experiential devotion, distinct from traditional Saguna bhakti.

The main features of Kabir’s devotional sentiment are:

• Formless and Attributeless God: Kabir’s deity (whom he calls by names like Ram, Hari, Govind) is not the son of Dasharatha, but an omnipresent, formless, unborn, and transcendent Supreme Being. He resides in every being.
• Importance of Love and Separation: Kabir’s devotion is not dry knowledge but a deep experience of love. He considers himself the pining soul and God the beloved, singing verses of separation (virah). This love is not worldly but divine.
• Glory of the Guru: According to Kabir, the ‘Satguru’ (true teacher) is the one who shows the path to God. He considers the guru even greater than God (Govind) because it is the guru who dispels ignorance and imparts the knowledge of God. (“Guru Govind dou khade, kake lagun payn.”)
• Rejection of External Rituals: Kabir’s devotion emphasizes internal practice. He considers all external rituals like idol worship, pilgrimages, fasting, and namaz to be futile.
• Mysticism: In Kabir’s devotion, there is a veil of mystery around the non-dual relationship between the soul and the Supreme Soul, which is called ‘mysticism’ (Rahasyavād). His ‘Ulatbānsis’ (enigmatic verses) are indicative of this mystical experience.

In short, Kabir’s devotional sentiment is a unique blend of knowledge, love, and mysticism that emanates directly from the heart and touches the heart.

(c) The Satsai Tradition and ‘Bihari Satsai’

‘Satsai’ is a specific tradition of poetic composition, meaning

a collection of seven hundred (or approximately seven hundred) verses

. This tradition came to Hindi via the Prakrit ‘Gaha Sattasai’ (Gatha Saptashati) and the Sanskrit ‘Arya Saptashati’. In Hindi, several poets like Tulsi, Rahim, and Matiram composed satsais, but the credit for taking this tradition to its zenith goes to the

Ritisiddha poet of the Ritikal, Biharilal

.

‘Bihari Satsai’

is Bihari’s only work, containing about 713 couplets (dohas). It is because of its fame that Bihari became immortal in Hindi literature. Its features are:

• Depth and Density of Meaning: The greatest feature of Bihari Satsai is “filling the ocean in a pitcher.” Bihari encapsulated a vast world of emotions in a small meter like the doha.
• Variety of Subjects: Although it is dominated by Shringār Rasa (romantic love, in both union and separation), it also contains a large number of couplets on bhakti (devotion), niti (ethics), and nature .
• Artistry and Artifice: From an artistic perspective, Bihari’s poetry is outstanding. His use of figures of speech (especially hyperbole and allegory), the power of his imagination, and the precise use of language make his poetry unique.
• Language: The language of Bihari Satsai is a refined and literary Brajbhasha , which has a wonderful balance of sweetness (madhurya) and clarity (prasad) qualities.

Due to these characteristics, ‘Bihari Satsai’ is considered not only the representative and best work of the Satsai tradition but also of the entire Ritikal.

(d) Folk Life in Ghananand’s Poetry

Ghananand is the greatest poet of the

Ritimukta (free from convention) school

of the Ritikal. Unlike the Ritibaddha poets who adopted courtly ornamentation and classicism, Ghananand’s poetry is a true and poignant expression of his personal experience of love. The depiction of folk life in his poetry is not direct, but rather through the use of

folk elements, idioms, and natural language

.

Elements of folk life in Ghananand’s poetry can be seen as follows:

• Folk Flavor in Language: Although Ghananand’s language is literary Brajbhasha, it contains a very natural and precise use of folk words, idioms, and proverbs. Expressions like ‘ankhiyān dukhiyāni’ (sorrowful eyes) and ‘kūkabhari muktā’ (pearl-like calls of the cuckoo) make his language vibrant.
• Portrayal of Natural Human Emotions: His depiction of separation (virah) is not based on any classical method but expresses the real pain of a common person in love. His feelings of pain, complaint, and waiting are universal and accessible to the common folk.
• Folk Images and Symbols: To express his feelings, Ghananand used popular natural symbols from folk life, such as the Chatak bird, the Papiha, clouds, and peacocks. The single-minded devotion of the Chatak and its plea to the cloud become a symbol of his own love.
• Absence of Courtly Formality: Where the poetry of the Ritibaddha poets is bound by courtly etiquette and formality, Ghananand’s poetry is free from these constraints. It contains the true cry of a free-spirited lover’s heart, which is closer to the spontaneity of folk life.

Therefore, while Ghananand did not directly depict village life or the common man, his poetry is connected to the pulse of folk life through its language, the sincerity of its emotions, and its natural imagery.