IGNOU BHDC-134 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU BHDC-134 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

IGNOU BHDC-134 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in English

Q1. Provide a contextual explanation for any three of the following passages:

(a) Today, sitting above all this advocacy’s money and the prestige of intelligence, I think why couldn’t I be a little foolish? Where will I take all this money and prestige, tying it to my stomach? What shall I do with all this, when I failed to reciprocate love at the right time.

Ans.

Context: The given passage is excerpted from the psychological novel ‘Tyagpatra’ (The Resignation Letter), written by Jainendra Kumar. These are the words of the novel’s protagonist, Judge Pramod, reflecting on his life. At the final stage of his life, Pramod is evaluating his successes and failures.

Explanation: In this excerpt, the protagonist Pramod expresses deep regret over his successful legal career and the wealth and respect he has earned from it. He considers his life’s greatest achievement, which is a symbol of his intelligence and success in the eyes of society, to be meaningless. He is profoundly sad that he failed to fulfill his duty of affection and care towards his niece, Mrinal, at the appropriate time. He feels that his life would have been more meaningful today if he had ignored worldly wisdom and prestige, and instead shown some emotionality or ‘foolishness’ by supporting Mrinal. Now, at the end of his life, this wealth and prestige feel like a burden. He says he cannot take this material wealth with him after death. It is all worthless because he failed at the most crucial moment of life to reciprocate love, i.e., to support Mrinal. This passage poignantly presents the conflict between worldly success and the importance of human relationships and love.

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(b) A monthly salary is like a full moon, which appears one day and then wanes until it vanishes. Bribe money is a flowing stream that always quenches thirst. Man gives the salary, which is why it doesn’t increase. God gives the supplementary income, which is why it is blessed with prosperity. You yourself are a learned man, what can I explain to you. Great discretion is needed in this matter.

Ans.

Context: This passage is taken from Munshi Premchand’s famous story ‘Namak ka Daroga’ (The Salt Inspector). These words are spoken by the protagonist Vanshidhar’s father, as he preaches to his son before he leaves for his new job.

Explanation: In this part, Vanshidhar’s father is teaching a lesson in worldly pragmatism based on his life experiences. He compares the monthly salary to a full moon, which appears in its full glory only once a month and then gradually diminishes and disappears. The implication is that a salary is a fixed and limited income that is quickly spent. In contrast, he describes ‘supplementary income’, i.e., bribes, as a flowing stream that can always quench one’s thirst, meaning it is a continuous and unlimited source of income. He further strengthens his argument by saying that the salary is given by man, hence it doesn’t increase much. But he glorifies the supplementary income by calling it a ‘gift from God’ and claims that it is what brings ‘blessings’ and prosperity. This statement is a sharp satire on the corruption and moral decay prevalent in the society of that time. The father is motivating his son to stray from the path of honesty and take up bribery, terming it an act of ‘discretion’. This passage sets the stage for the conflict between idealism and realism .

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(c) I remember when I was little, my father used to go to sea for his job. My mother would place an earthen lamp in a bamboo basket and hang it high on the bank of the Bhagirathi as a sky-lamp. At that time she would pray, “O God, guide my misguided sailor on the right path in the darkness.” And when my father returned home after years, he would say – “O virtuous one, it is because of your prayers that God has protected me in dangers.”

Ans.

Context: The present passage is from the story ‘Akashdeep’ (The Sky Lamp), written by the prominent Chhayavadi author, Jaishankar Prasad. These words are spoken by the story’s heroine, Champa, to the protagonist, Buddhagupta, while recounting her past.

Explanation: In this excerpt, Champa is recalling a poignant memory from her childhood. She explains that her father was a sailor who worked at sea. Her mother, for her husband’s safety and well-being, would hang a lamp in a basket on a tall bamboo pole on the banks of the Ganga (Bhagirathi), which was called an ‘Akashdeep’ or ‘sky-lamp’. This sky-lamp was not just a lamp but a symbol of a wife’s deep love, faith, and prayer for her husband. Champa’s mother would pray that God should show the right path to her husband, who is a ‘misguided sailor’. Here, ‘misguided’ might not only mean losing one’s way at sea but could also hint at straying from the moral path of life. When her father returned after years, he would acknowledge the power of his wife’s prayers, saying that her piety had protected him from dangers. This passage highlights the power of love, faith, and prayer and helps in understanding the background of Champa’s character and why she herself later continues the tradition of lighting the sky-lamp.

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(d) A person feels sad to leave a place where they have lived for a long time. Even animals and children get attached to those they live with. This ‘attachment’ comes from ‘familiarity’. Familiarity is the progenitor of love. There can be no love without familiarity. If you want to make a place for patriotism in your heart, then become familiar and accustomed to the form of your country.

Ans.

Context: This passage is taken from the famous essay ‘Lobh aur Preeti’ (Greed and Affection) on human emotions, written by the most distinguished essayist and critic of Hindi, Acharya Ramchandra Shukla .

Explanation: In this passage, Acharya Shukla explains the process of the origin and development of love in a psychological manner. He states that the root of attachment to a place, person, or object is ‘familiarity’. When we live in a place for a long time, we develop a deep familiarity with it, which is why we feel sad when we have to leave it. He gives the example of animals and children who also get attached (‘parach jaate hain’) to those they live with. According to Shukla, this word ‘parachna’ is derived from ‘parichay’ (familiarity).

He establishes the principle that ‘familiarity is the progenitor of love’ , meaning love begins with familiarity. Love cannot arise without introduction or knowledge. Extending this principle, he applies it to ‘patriotism’ (desh-prem). He believes that patriotism is not an abstract feeling. If we want to awaken true patriotism in our hearts, we must become familiar with the actual form of our country. We must establish an intimacy with its rivers, mountains, plains, forests, people, culture, and history. Only then can true and deep patriotism be born.

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(e) Sorrow and happiness are but choices of the mind. Happy is he whose mind is under his control; unhappy is he whose mind is subservient. To be subservient means to flatter, to grin obsequiously, sycophancy, yes-manship. One whose mind is not in his own control is the one who panders to another’s will, creates false pretenses to hide himself, and lays traps to ensnare others.

Ans.

Context: This passage is quoted from Acharya Hazariprasad Dwivedi’s renowned personal essay ‘Kutaj’ . In this essay, the author uses a humble plant of the Himalayas, ‘Kutaj’, as a medium to reveal profound philosophical truths of life.

Explanation: In this excerpt, Dwivedi ji presents a fundamental philosophical interpretation of happiness and sorrow. He believes that happiness and sorrow depend not on external circumstances but on a person’s mental state. He calls them ‘choices of the mind’. A truly happy person is one whose mind is under his own control, who is self-controlled and self-reliant. Conversely, an unhappy person is one whose mind is ‘parvash’ or subservient to others. He clarifies the signs of a ‘subservient’ mind, saying that such a person flatters others, grovels before them (grins obsequiously), indulges in sycophancy and yes-manship. The one who lacks control over his own mind is the one who acts according to the whims of others (‘panders to another’s will’), creates false facades to hide his weaknesses, and deceives others for his own selfish interests. Thus, like the Kutaj plant, Dwivedi ji considers self-reliance, self-respect, and detachment as the foundation of true happiness, and dependency and ostentation as the root cause of sorrow.

Q2. Explain the course of development of Hindi prose.

Ans. The development of Hindi prose has been a gradual and long process, which can be divided into various periods for the convenience of study:

1. Pre-Bhartendu Era (Before 1850 AD): In this period, the form of Hindi prose was underdeveloped. Prose was mainly found in mixed forms of Rajasthani, Brajbhasha, and Khadi Boli. Works like ‘Gora-Badal ki Katha’ (Jatmal) and ‘Rani Ketki ki Kahani’ (Insha Allah Khan) are examples of early prose. Fort William College (Calcutta) played a significant role in standardizing Khadi Boli prose through writers like Lallu Lal (‘Prem Sagar’) and Sadal Mishra (‘Nasiketopakhyan’). Raja Shivprasad ‘Sitarehind’ and Raja Lakshman Singh also did important work regarding the form of the language.

2. Bhartendu Era (1850-1900 AD): The pioneer of this era was Bhartendu Harishchandra , who is considered the father of modern Hindi prose. He wrote prolifically in genres like drama, essays, and journalism, and connected prose with the lives of common people. His language was simple, lively, and satirical. Other major writers of this era were Balakrishna Bhatt, Pratapnarayan Mishra, and Badrinarayan Chaudhary ‘Premghan’. During this period, prose was used as a powerful medium for social reform, national consciousness, and public awakening.

3. Dwivedi Era (1900-1920 AD): Acharya Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi was the trailblazer of this era. Through his editorship of the ‘Saraswati’ magazine, he accomplished the historic task of making Hindi prose grammatically correct, refined, and standardized. This era brought stability and discipline to the language. Prose began to be used for the expression of serious subjects. Genres like the short story, novel, essay, and criticism developed systematically. Maithilisharan Gupt, Ramchandra Shukla (early writings), and Premchand (early writings) are the products of this era.

4. Shukla Era / Chhayavad Era (1920-1940 AD): In this era, Hindi prose reached new heights. On one hand, Acharya Ramchandra Shukla proved the intellectual capacity of prose by writing serious, analytical, and psychological essays and criticism. On the other hand, the Chhayavadi poets—Jaishankar Prasad, Mahadevi Verma, Sumitranandan Pant, and Nirala—developed a poetic, metaphorical, and emotional prose. Premchand took the novel and short story to their zenith by connecting them with social realism.

5. Post-Shukla and Post-Independence Era (1940 AD to present): After independence, Hindi prose saw multidimensional development. Writers like Hazariprasad Dwivedi, Jainendra Kumar, Agyeya, Yashpal, Phanishwarnath Renu, Harishankar Parsai, and Kubernath Rai enriched genres like the novel, short story, essay, satire, memoir, and reportage. The Nai Kahani (New Story) movement, post-60s writing, and contemporary writing have given birth to new subjects, styles, and experiments in prose. Today, Hindi prose is the most powerful and popular form of literature.

Q3. Throw light on the nature of Hindi criticism.

Ans. The nature of Hindi criticism has evolved and changed over time. It is a genre that involves discussing, evaluating, and interpreting the merits and demerits of a literary work. The main stages and forms of its development are as follows:

1. Introductory Criticism: In the Bhartendu and Dwivedi eras, criticism was mainly introductory in nature. Its purpose was to introduce authors and their works, write commentaries, or provide a general count of merits and demerits. Works like ‘Mishrabandhu Vinod’ and ‘Hindi Kovid Ratnamala’ fall into this category. This was the initial and underdeveloped form of criticism.

2. Classical Criticism: This form evaluates works based on the principles of Indian poetics (Rasa, Alankara, Dhvani theory) or Western poetics. Elements of this can be found in the works of Babu Shyamsundar Das and to some extent in Dwivedi-era criticism.

3. Shukla-era or Positivist Criticism: The credit for systematizing Hindi criticism and taking it to its peak goes to Acharya Ramchandra Shukla . He developed a new critical method by adapting the ‘Positivist’ methodology of the Western scholar Taine to the Indian context. In his criticism, a work is evaluated in the context of race, milieu, and moment (caste, environment, and time). He made ‘Lok-Mangal’ (welfare of the people) the criterion for literature and provided a psychological interpretation of the Rasa theory. ‘Chintamani’ and ‘Ras Mimansa’ are his major critical works.

4. Romantic or Impressionistic Criticism: This criticism is not based on principles but on the impression a work leaves on the critic’s heart. It is highly subjective. Elements of this can be seen in the works of Shantipriya Dwivedi and in the prose criticism of some Chhayavadi poets.

5. Progressive / Marxist Criticism: This views literature in the context of society and class struggle. It emphasizes that the purpose of literature is to depict social reality and to stand with the oppressed class. Ramvilas Sharma, Shivdan Singh Chauhan, and Namvar Singh are the leading critics of this school.

6. Psychological Criticism: This analyzes the minds of characters based on the theories of psychologists like Freud, Jung, and Adler. Ilachandra Joshi, Agyeya, and Devraj used this method.

7. New Criticism and Contemporary Criticism: Today, a synthesis of various methods can be seen in criticism. The focus is now on analyzing the text itself. Feminist discourse, Dalit discourse, and post-modernist thought have given new perspectives and dimensions to criticism. Critics like Nirmala Jain, Manager Pandey, and Rohini Agrawal are enriching contemporary criticism.

Q4. Discuss the structure and craft of the novel ‘Tyagpatra’.

Ans. Jainendra Kumar’s novel ‘Tyagpatra’ holds a significant place in Hindi literature due to its unique structure and craft. Despite its small size, it is extremely profound in its impact. Its structural and stylistic features are as follows:

1. Autobiographical/Memoiristic Style: The entire story of the novel is told from the perspective of the protagonist, Pramod, who is a judge. It is a retrospective of his life, in which he records his memories, especially those related to his aunt (Bua), Mrinal. This first-person narrative style makes the story extremely intimate and believable. The reader gets a direct glimpse into the protagonist’s inner world.

2. Flashback Technique: The structure of the novel is not linear. The story begins in the present, where Pramod is a respected judge, and then he returns to the past through his memories. The events of Mrinal’s life unfold in fragments through flashbacks. This technique sustains the reader’s curiosity and gives the narrative a dramatic turn.

3. Impression of a Diary/Epistolary Style: Although the novel is not strictly in a diary or epistolary style, it contains elements of these genres. Pramod’s writing seems like a self-confession, as if he is writing a long letter to someone or his personal diary. This is why its title ‘Tyagpatra’ (The Resignation Letter) seems meaningful, signifying not only Mrinal’s resignation from society but also Pramod’s ideological resignation from his own successful life.

4. Psychological Realism: Jainendra Kumar is known for delving into the inner worlds of his characters rather than writing event-driven novels. ‘Tyagpatra’ is an excellent example of this. The novel gives more importance to the internal conflicts, dilemmas, and mental turmoil of the characters (especially Pramod and Mrinal) than to external events. The purpose of the craft is not to expose external reality, but psychological reality.

5. Poetic and Symbolic Language: The language of the novel is very restrained, poetic, and symbolic. Jainendra expresses deep emotions in few words. The language has a philosophical depth. The dialogues are short, crisp, and meaningful. This craft gives the novel a dense and artistic form.

In short, the structure of ‘Tyagpatra’ is non-traditional, and its craft is conducive to the psychoanalysis of the characters. It is a milestone in the craft of the Hindi novel.

Q5. Clarify the objective of the story ‘Namak ka Daroga’.

Ans. ‘Namak ka Daroga’ (The Salt Inspector), written by Munshi Premchand, is a timeless story in Hindi literature. It does not merely describe an event but carries deep social and moral objectives. The main objectives of the story are as follows:

1. To Show the Victory of Dharma over Wealth: The central objective of the story is to establish that ultimately, Dharma (duty, integrity) triumphs over wealth (corruption, greed). In the story, Vanshidhar is a symbol of Dharma and duty, while Pandit Alopidin is a symbol of the arrogance of wealth and power. Initially, it seems that Vanshidhar’s honesty has been defeated by the power of money when he is dismissed from his job. But at the end of the story, when Pandit Alopidin himself goes to Vanshidhar’s house and appoints him the permanent manager of his entire estate, it marks the climax of ‘the victory of Dharma over wealth’.

2. Presentation of Idealistic Realism: Premchand was a proponent of ‘Idealistic Realism’. He depicts the reality of society (corruption, dishonesty) but also establishes an ideal at the end. In the story, Vanshidhar’s father advising him to take bribes, and lawyers being bought for money, all represent the harsh reality of society. But through the character of Vanshidhar and the change of heart in Alopidin, Premchand sends a message of establishing an ideal society where honesty is respected.

3. To Emphasize the Importance of a Dutiful and Honest Character: Through the character of Vanshidhar, Premchand wants to show that even in adverse circumstances, a person can remain steadfast in his integrity and honesty. Vanshidhar is offered a bribe of up to forty thousand rupees by Alopidin, but he does not waver. Through such characters, Premchand wants to give moral inspiration to society.

4. Establishment of Human Values: Another objective of the story is to show that a person eventually realizes their mistake and learns to respect virtues. The change of heart of Pandit Alopidin, who was intoxicated with wealth, is a victory for humanity. He is so impressed by Vanshidhar’s integrity that he becomes his admirer and gives him respect.

Thus, the purpose of ‘Namak ka Daroga’ is not just to entertain, but to morally inspire readers and to establish eternal values like honesty and integrity in society.

Q6. Shed light on the ideological aspect of the essay ‘Kutaj’.

Ans. Acharya Hazariprasad Dwivedi’s personal essay ‘Kutaj’ is not just a description of a plant, but a profound ideological reflection on the philosophy of life and human values. Its ideological aspect can be understood through the following points:

1. Will to Live and Invincible Life Force: The central idea of the essay is the invincible will to live (jijivisha) manifested through the Kutaj plant. Kutaj not only survives but also blossoms and thrives on the dry, hard rocks of the Himalayas, where the possibility of life is minimal. Through this, Dwivedi ji conveys the message that humans too should not give up in adverse circumstances but should struggle to extract the essence of life.

2. Detachment and Self-Reliance: Kutaj does not ask for anything from anyone. It draws the necessary water and minerals for its survival from the rocks itself. It is self-reliant. It is not ‘dependent on others’. Dwivedi ji compares this quality to that of a ‘detached yogi’. On an ideological level, this is a great message for mankind: one should become self-reliant instead of depending on or flattering others. True happiness lies in self-reliance, not in dependency.

3. The Mental Conception of Happiness and Sorrow: Dwivedi ji posits that “Sorrow and happiness are but choices of the mind.” Happy is he whose mind is under his control, and unhappy is he whose mind is subservient to others. Since Kutaj is self-reliant and self-controlled, it is happy and cheerful in all conditions. This idea is close to the Indian philosophical concept of ‘Sthitaprajna’ (one of steadfast wisdom), which inspires man to become mentally independent and strong.

4. The Importance of Being over Name and Form: In the essay, Dwivedi ji satirizes the social importance of ‘name’ and ‘form’. Even the great poet Kalidas could not properly name Kutaj, nor does it have any special recognition in society, yet it is unique in its existence and dignity. This leads to the idea that a person’s importance is not determined by their social position or name, but by their inner qualities and self-power.

5. Synthesis of Beauty and the Will to Live: Kutaj is not just tough and struggling; it is also beautiful. Its flowers are charming. This reinforces the idea that struggle and beauty, hardness and softness, can coexist. True life is one that has both the courage to struggle and the capacity to enjoy beauty.

Hence, the essay ‘Kutaj’ is extremely rich in its ideological aspect and inspires man to live with self-respect, detachment, and joy even in adverse circumstances.

Q7. Shed light on the stylistic aspect (shilp paksh) of the essay ‘Sahasra Phanon ka Mani-Deep’.

Ans. Kubernath Rai is a leading personal essayist (Lalit Nibandhkar) in Hindi, and ‘Sahasra Phanon ka Mani-Deep’ (The Jewel-Lamp of a Thousand Hoods) is one of his representative essays. Its stylistic aspect is its greatest feature, which sets it apart from traditional intellectual essays. The main features of its craft are as follows:

1. Style of a Personal Essay (Lalit Nibandh): This is a pure personal essay where the author’s personality and style are more important than the subject matter. It has a wonderful combination of intellectuality with emotionality and poetry. The author reflects on Indian culture, art, and life philosophy through the mythical image of the jewel-lamp on the thousand hoods of the serpent Sheshnag.

2. Poetic and Ornate Language: Kubernath Rai’s language is highly refined, rich in Sanskrit-based (Tatsam) words, and poetic. He is a painter of words. His language has a musicality and flow. He makes abundant use of similes, metaphors, images, and symbols, which makes his prose as enjoyable as poetry. The title ‘Sahasra Phanon ka Mani-Deep’ is itself a powerful poetic image.

3. Use of Myth and Mythology: Kubernath Rai creatively uses Indian Puranas, myths, and folktales in his essays. In this essay, mythical references like Sheshnag, the jewel-lamp, and the churning of the ocean (samudra-manthan) are linked to modern life and artistic thought. This craft provides his essays with cultural depth and breadth.

4. Subjective and Personal Style: In line with the nature of the personal essay, the author’s ‘I’ style or subjectivity is prominent. The author seems to be in direct dialogue with the reader. He shares his knowledge, experiences, and feelings without any hesitation. This personal touch prevents the essay from becoming cumbersome and makes it interesting.

5. Weaving of Threads of Thought: The structure of the essay is not bound by a logical sequence. The author moves freely from one thought to another. He weaves together threads of art, culture, history, philosophy, and personal experience, as if making a garland. This style of free-thinking inspires the reader to think and feel as well.

In short, the craft of ‘Sahasra Phanon ka Mani-Deep’ lies in its poetic language, mythical references, subjective style, and artistic weaving of ideas. It is this craft that elevates it from a simple article to an outstanding literary work.

Q8. Write short notes on any two of the following:

(a) The Nature of the Essay

Ans. The word ‘Nibandh’ (essay) means ‘without bonds’ or ‘well-bound’. Both meanings clarify its nature. It is a prose composition in which a writer presents their personal thoughts and feelings on a subject freely but in a coherent manner.

Nature and Characteristics:

• Personality: The most significant feature of an essay is the imprint of the writer’s personality. The writer’s thoughts, style, and perspective are clearly reflected in it. This is understood by the saying, ‘Prose is the touchstone of poets’.
• Incompleteness and Freedom: An essay is not a complete scholarly treatise on a subject, but rather the author’s personal and incomplete reflection on it. It allows for a free flight of ideas.
• Brevity: Generally, essays are short in length, although this is not a strict rule. The aim is to be concise and meaningful.
• Intimate Style: In a good essay, the writer appears to establish a direct dialogue with the reader, creating a sense of intimacy.

Major Types: Based on the subject matter, essays are mainly divided into descriptive, narrative, reflective, and personal/lyrical essays. In Hindi literature, writers like Acharya Ramchandra Shukla, Hazariprasad Dwivedi, Vidyanivas Mishra, Kubernath Rai, and Harishankar Parsai have taken the essay genre to new heights.

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(b) Short story writer Usha Priyamvada

Ans. Usha Priyamvada (born 1930) is a leading and respected writer of the ‘Nai Kahani’ (New Story) movement. Through her stories, she has portrayed the changing social landscape of post-independence India, especially the sensibilities of urban middle-class life and the female psyche, with great subtlety.

Key Features:

• Portrayal of the Female Psyche: The central character in Usha Priyamvada’s stories is often a modern, educated, and working woman. She expresses the hopes, aspirations, frustrations, loneliness, and desire for freedom of the female mind with great authenticity.
• Urban Sensibility and Alienation: The setting of her stories is predominantly urban. She deeply captures the loneliness, alienation, and breakdown of relationships in metropolitan life.
• Immigrant Experience: Having lived in the United States for a long time, her writing prominently features the experience of immigrant life, the pain of being disconnected from one’s roots, and the search for ‘home’. Her famous story ‘Vapasi’ (The Return) is an excellent example of this, where Gajadhar Babu, who returns home after retirement, becomes a stranger in his own family.
• Language and Style: Her language is very natural, simple, and appropriate to the characters. She states her point directly without any affectation or extra embellishment. A kind of ruthless neutrality and restraint is visible in her style.

‘Zindagi aur Gulab ke Phool’ and ‘Ek Koi Doosra’ are her famous short story collections. ‘Pachpan Khambe Lal Deewaren’ and ‘Rukogi Nahin Radhika’ are her acclaimed novels. Usha Priyamvada’s literature is an important link in modern Hindi fiction.

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(c) Greed and Affection: Various Forms

Ans. ‘Lobh aur Preeti’ (Greed and Affection) is a famous essay on human emotions by Acharya Ramchandra Shukla, in which he has provided a psychological and subtle analysis of these two feelings.

According to Shukla ji, the desire that arises in the mind for an object or person, which leads to the tendency to acquire it, protect it, and not give it to anyone else, is called ‘Lobh’ (Greed). Greed is a general emotion that can be directed towards any object.

When this same greed becomes focused on a specific person or object and becomes so intense that the person feels sad even at the thought of its absence, it takes the form of ‘Preeti’ or ‘Prem’ (Affection or Love). Thus, affection is a specific and sublime form of greed.

Various Forms:

• General Greed (Lobh): The desire for wealth, property, or any common object. It is impersonal.
• Specific Greed (Preeti): When greed is focused on one person (like a son, wife) or object (like one’s own house, one’s book).
• Birth of Love from Familiarity: Shukla ji believes that ‘familiarity is the progenitor of love’. Love arises for the object or person with whom our familiarity and practice increase.
• Patriotism (Desh-prem): Shukla ji also considers patriotism as a form of affection, which arises from familiarity and intimacy with the country’s land, rivers, mountains, people, and culture.

Thus, Shukla ji does not see greed as a negative emotion but analyzes it as a fundamental emotion of life, a refined and focused form of which is ‘affection’.

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(d) Essayist Kubernath Rai

Ans. Kubernath Rai (1933-1996) is a distinguished personal essayist (Lalit Nibandhkar) of post-independence Hindi literature. He is an important pillar in the tradition of Acharya Hazariprasad Dwivedi and Vidyanivas Mishra. His essays are known for their poetic quality, cultural depth, and intellectual richness.

Key Features of his Essays:

• Personal Essay Style: His essays are free from intellectual burden and are subjective. He presents deep thoughts on a subject in a very natural, delightful, and intimate manner.
• Cultural and Mythical Consciousness: The fabric of his essays is woven with Indian culture, Puranas, myths, folk elements, and spirituality. He interprets ancient knowledge traditions in modern contexts. Titles like ‘Gandhamadan’, ‘Priya Neelkanthi’, and ‘Ras Aakhetak’ are indicative of his cultural interests.
• Nature and Rural Life: His essays contain a very enchanting and vivid portrayal of nature, especially rural nature and folk life. He personifies human emotions in nature.
• Poetic Language: His language is Sanskritized, refined, and extremely poetic. He gives a unique beauty to his prose through images, symbols, and metaphors. In his style, the boundaries between prose and poetry seem to blur.

His major essay collections are ‘Priya Neelkanthi’, ‘Ras Aakhetak’, ‘Gandhamadan’, ‘Vishad Yog’, ‘Nishad Bansuri’, and ‘Parna-Mukut’. Kubernath Rai provided the personal essay with new artistic heights and philosophical depth.