IGNOU BHIC-103 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU BHIC-103 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. Write in brief the political history of the Satavahanas.

Ans. The Satavahanas emerged as a major power in the Deccan after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. They ruled for about 300 years, from around the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The Puranas refer to them as ‘Andhras’. Their capital was at Pratishthana (modern Paithan) in Maharashtra. The main sources for reconstructing their history are the Puranas, inscriptions such as those at Nanaghat and Nasik, and their coins. The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka . He was succeeded by his brother Kanha (Krishna), who extended the kingdom up to Nasik. The first great ruler of the dynasty was Satakarni I . He performed Ashvamedha and Rajasuya sacrifices and assumed the title of ‘Dakshinapathapati’ (Lord of the Southern Path). He conquered Malwa, Anupa (Narmada valley), and Vidarbha. He had a conflict with King Kharavela of Kalinga, which is mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription. After Satakarni I, the Shakas (Western Kshatrapas) invaded Satavahana territories and occupied Maharashtra and parts of western India. The Satavahana power was revived under Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 106-130 CE), who is considered the greatest ruler of this dynasty. His achievements are detailed in the Nasik inscription of his mother, Gautami Balashri. He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana and expanded his empire. He is described as the ‘destroyer of the Shakas, Yavanas, and Pahlavas’ and ‘Trisamudratoyapitavahana’ (one whose horses drank the water of the three seas). His empire extended from Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the south. Gautamiputra’s successor, Vasisthiputra Pulumavi , extended the empire towards the eastern coast. He married the daughter of the Shaka ruler Rudradaman, but conflicts with the Shakas continued. The last great ruler of the dynasty was Yajna Sri Satakarni . He recovered North Konkan and parts of Malwa from the Shakas. His coins bear the figure of a ship, which suggests maritime trade and naval power. After Yajna Sri Satakarni, the Satavahana empire weakened and disintegrated into smaller kingdoms, such as the Abhiras in the western Deccan, the Ikshvakus in the eastern Deccan, and the Kadambas in the southern Deccan. The political significance of the Satavahanas lies in their role as a bridge between North and South India, their promotion of trade and commerce, and their development of a unique administrative system that included the use of metronymics (e.g., Gautamiputra), although succession remained patrilineal.

Q2. Analyze the economic and social organisation in Tamilakam.

Ans. The ancient Tamil country, known as Tamilakam , developed a distinct social and economic organisation during the Sangam Age (c. 300 BCE to 300 CE). Sangam literature, comprising vast collections of poetry, is our primary source of information for this period. Economic Organisation: The most unique feature of Tamilakam’s economy was the concept of ‘Tinai’ or five eco-zones, each with its distinct economic activities:

• Kurinji (hilly tracts): Hunting and honey gathering.
• Mullai (pastoral tracts): Cattle-rearing and dairy production.
• Marutam (riverine plains): Plough agriculture, primarily cultivating rice and sugarcane.
• Neytal (coastal areas): Fishing and salt manufacturing.
• Palai (arid land): Plunder and robbery.

This classification shows that the economy was not solely based on agriculture but was diverse and adapted to the environment. Agriculture was most important in the Marutam zones. Internal trade occurred through the exchange of goods (barter) between the different tinais.

Foreign trade, especially with the

Roman Empire

, was a crucial component of the economy. Ports like Muziris (Muchiri), Puhar (Kaveripattinam), and Arikamedu were major centres of trade. Pepper, pearls, ivory, and textiles were exported, while gold, wine, and Roman pottery (Arretine ware) were imported. This trade is confirmed by Sangam texts, the writings of Pliny, and archaeological finds (Roman coins).

Social Organisation:

The society of Tamilakam was not based on the rigid

varna system

of North India. Social stratification existed, but it was primarily based on occupation, kinship, and wealth. At the top of society were the kings (Ventars), chiefs (Velirs), and their warriors. Below them were Brahmins (purohitas), bards and poets (panar, viraliyar), and the common people.

‘Kuti’ (kinship)

was the central organizing principle of society. Society was divided into various groups such as

ulavar

(ploughmen/landowners),

ayar

(herders),

vedar

(hunters), and

parathavar

(fishermen).

Women were respected, and there were poetesses like Avvaiyar. However, the society was patriarchal. The concept of

‘karpu’ (chastity)

was very important. The practice of Sati (tippaydal) was also prevalent among the upper classes. In summary, Tamilakam had a unique socio-economic structure based on eco-zones and kinship, and it was deeply integrated into long-distance trade networks.

Q3. Discuss society and culture under the Guptas.

Ans. The Gupta period (c. 4th to 6th centuries CE) is often referred to as the “Golden Age” of ancient India. While this is a matter of debate, this period witnessed significant developments in the realms of society and culture. Society: The social structure became more rigid during the Gupta period. The varna system was strongly enforced.

• Brahmanas enjoyed the highest position in society. They received land grants (agrahara and brahmadeya) from the kings.
• Kshatriyas were the ruling and warrior class.
• Vaishyas were mainly traders, farmers, and cattle-rearers.
• Shudras were tasked with serving the upper three varnas.

The practice of

untouchability

became more pronounced. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien noted in his travelogue that the Chandalas had to live outside the city and strike a piece of wood upon entering to warn people of their approach, so they could avoid their touch.

The position of women generally declined. They were considered subordinate to men. Pre-puberty marriage was advocated, and widow remarriage was discouraged. The first epigraphic evidence of Sati is found in the

Eran inscription (510 CE)

. However, women of the upper classes had access to education.

Culture:

Culturally, this period was extremely rich.

• Religion: Brahmanism was revitalized. Vaishnavism and Shaivism became prominent. The Gupta rulers themselves were Vaishnavas and adopted the title ‘Paramabhagavata’, but they were tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism. The Puranas and Smritis were given their final form during this period.
• Literature: Sanskrit literature reached its zenith. Kalidasa , the greatest poet and playwright of this era, composed immortal works like Abhijnanashakuntalam , Meghaduta , and Raghuvamsha . Other major writers include Vishakhadatta ( Mudrarakshasa ) and Shudraka ( Mrichchhakatikam ).
• Science and Technology: Great progress was made in this field. Aryabhata explained the decimal system, the concept of zero, the value of Pi (π), and the correct causes of solar and lunar eclipses. Varahamihira wrote treatises on astronomy and astrology. Metallurgy was also highly advanced, as evidenced by the Iron Pillar of Delhi at Mehrauli, which remains rust-free to this day.
• Art and Architecture: The Gupta period was a golden age of temple architecture. The first structural temples (built of brick and stone) began to be constructed, such as the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the temple at Bhitargaon. Sculpture reached classical heights, with the serene and graceful Buddha images of the Sarnath school being notable. The art of painting reached its peak in the Ajanta caves.

In conclusion, the Gupta period was a time of cultural efflorescence, but it also saw increasing social rigidity and a decline in the status of women and the lower castes.

Q4. Write short notes on any two of the following in about 200 words each : (a) Harshavardhana (b) Decline of Patliputra (c) Urbanization in C-200 BCE C-300 CE (d) The Indo-Greeks

Ans. (a) Harshavardhana Harshavardhana (606-647 CE) was the most powerful ruler of the Vardhana (Pushyabhuti) dynasty of Thanesar. Information about his reign comes mainly from the ‘Harshacharita’ , written by his court poet Banabhatta , and the travel accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) . He ascended the throne after his brother Rajyavardhana was assassinated. He united the kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj and made Kannauj his capital, which became the new political centre of North India. Harsha established a vast empire that included almost the whole of North India. However, his expansion towards the south was checked by the Chalukyan king Pulakeshin II on the banks of the river Narmada. Harsha was an efficient administrator and personally supervised the administration by touring his kingdom. Initially a Shaiva, he later became a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism under the influence of Xuanzang. He organised a grand assembly at Kannauj and the Mahamoksha Parishad at Prayaga, where he donated all his wealth. He was a scholar himself and is credited with writing three Sanskrit plays: Ratnavali , Priyadarshika , and Nagananda . (b) Decline of Patliputra Patliputra, once the magnificent capital of great empires like the Mauryas and the Guptas, began to decline after the Gupta period. For centuries, this city had been the centre of power, commerce, and culture. There were several reasons for its decline. A major factor was the shift in the political centre. The transfer of the capital to Kannauj by Harshavardhana in the 7th century was a major blow, ending Patliputra’s political pre-eminence. Economic factors were also significant. The decline in trade with the Roman Empire and the absence of a strong central authority affected the city’s economic prosperity. The Huna invasions in the 5th-6th centuries weakened the Gupta Empire and likely caused heavy damage to the city. Some historians argue for a general process of de-urbanization in the post-Gupta period, which also affected Patliputra. Furthermore, natural calamities like devastating floods from the river Ganga may have played a role in its downfall. When the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang visited India in the 7th century, he found Patliputra largely in ruins, a clear sign of the end of its glory. (c) Urbanization in c. 200 BCE – c. 300 CE The post-Mauryan period (c. 200 BCE to 300 CE) witnessed a new wave of urbanization in the Indian subcontinent, often termed the second phase of the “Second Urbanization”. During this time, many new cities emerged and older ones became more prosperous across the country. Several factors were behind this urban growth. The most important factor was the unprecedented growth in trade and commerce . Maritime trade with the Roman Empire was at its peak during this period, enriching the ports and cities of western and southern India. Overland trade with Central Asia and China via the Silk Road was also significant. Internal trade routes, such as the Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha , connected different parts of the subcontinent. The expansion of agriculture and specialization in craft production, like textiles, metalwork, and bead-making, also spurred urbanization. The rise of regional kingdoms such as the Kushanas, Satavahanas, and the Sangam states provided political stability and patronage. Major urban centres of this period included Mathura and Taxila in the north, Ujjain and Bharuch in the west, Pratishthana in the Deccan, and Arikamedu and Puhar in the south. Archaeological excavations at these sites have revealed sophisticated structures, Roman coins, and luxury goods, confirming their urban nature and trade links. (d) The Indo-Greeks The Indo-Greeks were the Hellenistic (Greek) successors of Alexander the Great in Bactria (northern Afghanistan). Following the decline of the Mauryan Empire, they invaded northwestern India around the 2nd century BCE. They established their kingdoms in Punjab and parts of the Indus valley. The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (Milinda) , whose capital was at Sakala (Sialkot). He is known for his interest in Buddhism. The Buddhist text ‘Milinda-Panha’ (The Questions of Milinda) contains a detailed account of his philosophical dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, under whose influence he is believed to have converted to Buddhism. The Indo-Greeks had a significant impact on Indian culture. They introduced a new style of coinage in India. Their coins were artistically excellent, bearing realistic portraits of the kings and depictions of Greek deities. This was a significant improvement in Indian numismatics. They also brought the traditions of Hellenistic art to India, the fusion of which with Indian art led to the development of the Gandhara school of art . This is particularly evident in the images of the Buddha, which show the influence of Greek style in anatomy and drapery. Indian astronomy was also influenced by Greek ideas.

Q5. Discuss the position of women in the period between c. 300 BCE and c. 800 CE.

Ans. The long period between c. 300 BCE and c. 800 CE witnessed a gradual but steady decline in the status of women, though with regional and class variations. The normative texts, particularly the Dharmashastras, increasingly prescribed a subordinate and dependent role for women. Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Period (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE): The Smritis, such as the Manusmriti , codified a patriarchal ideology. It famously stated that a woman must be protected by her father in childhood, her husband in youth, and her son in old age, declaring that “a woman is never fit for independence.” Pre-puberty marriage ( gauri-dana ) was advocated. While monogamy was the ideal, polygyny was common among the ruling and affluent classes. Widow remarriage ( niyoga ) was permitted under certain conditions but was generally discouraged. Women had limited property rights; they had rights over stridhana (gifts received at marriage) but not over ancestral property. Access to education and public life became more restricted. Gupta and Post-Gupta Period (c. 300 CE – 800 CE): The decline in the status of women continued and intensified during this phase. The age of marriage for girls was further lowered. The first epigraphic evidence of Sati comes from an inscription at Eran in 510 CE. While the practice was not widespread, its idealization began in this period. The seclusion of women (purdah) started to appear among upper-class families. The practice of dedicating girls to temples as ‘devadasis’ also seems to have originated in this period, which later degenerated. Counter-Narratives and Variations: It is important to note that the prescriptive texts do not always reflect the reality for all women.

• Buddhism and Jainism offered an alternative path for women through monastic life (becoming nuns), providing them an avenue for spiritual pursuit and learning, away from domestic subjugation.
• There were significant regional variations . In the Deccan, Satavahana queens like Gautami Balashri wielded considerable influence and issued inscriptions. In South India’s Tamilakam, women poets like Avvaiyar held a high status.
• Class and caste were also important factors. Women of lower castes and labouring classes had more freedom of movement as they had to work outside the home, but they faced other forms of economic and social exploitation.

In conclusion, the period as a whole saw a progressive decline in the social, religious, and economic rights of women, largely driven by the strengthening of Brahmanical patriarchy and the varna system as reflected in the dominant Dharmashastric literature.

Q6. Explain the main features of craft production in in South India in the early medieval period.

Ans. The early medieval period in South India (c. 600-1300 CE), dominated by dynasties like the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas, and Chalukyas, witnessed significant developments in craft production. This growth was driven by a combination of agricultural surplus, extensive temple-building activities, and vigorous overseas trade. The main features of craft production were:

• The Temple as an Economic Hub: Temples were not just religious centres but major economic institutions. They were large landowners, major employers, and huge consumers of goods. The construction of massive stone temples itself spurred crafts like stone-cutting, sculpture, metallurgy (for casting icons and lamps), and painting. Temples also required vast quantities of textiles, perfumes, jewellery, and ritual items, thereby stimulating local production and creating a constant demand.
• Guilds and Corporate Organisation: Craftsmen and merchants were highly organized into powerful guilds, known in inscriptions as manigramam , ananjuvannam , and nagaram . These guilds regulated production, fixed prices, maintained quality standards, and even acted as banks, receiving deposits and paying interest. They possessed their own militias for protection and operated across vast regions. Inscriptions frequently record their collective donations to temples. This corporate structure gave artisans and merchants considerable autonomy and economic power.
• Major Crafts:
  • Textiles: South India was famous for its fine cotton and silk textiles. Kanchipuram emerged as a major weaving centre, a reputation it holds to this day. Guilds of weavers ( saliyar ) were prominent.
  • Metallurgy: The art of bronze casting reached its zenith, especially during the Chola period. The magnificent Chola bronze icons (like the Nataraja) are considered masterpieces of world art. They were created using the lost-wax ( cire perdue ) technique. Iron smelting for tools, weapons, and temple fixtures was also widespread.
  • Stonework and Sculpture: The large-scale temple architecture required highly skilled masons, stone-cutters, and sculptors. The rock-cut temples of the Pallavas at Mahabalipuram and the grand structural temples of the Cholas (e.g., Brihadisvara at Thanjavur) are testaments to their exceptional skill.
• Linkage with Trade: Craft production was closely linked to both internal trade and extensive maritime trade with Southeast Asia and China. Powerful merchant guilds like the Ayyavole 500 played a crucial role in distributing these craft goods across the Indian Ocean world.

In conclusion, craft production in early medieval South India was characterized by high levels of skill, strong corporate organization through guilds, and a deep integration with the temple economy and long-distance trade.

Q7. Write a brief survey of early Indian literature.

Ans. Early Indian literature is vast, multi-lingual, and diverse, encompassing religious, philosophical, secular, and scientific works. It forms one of the oldest and richest literary traditions in the world. A brief survey can be made by classifying it by language and genre. Sanskrit Literature:

• Vedic Literature (c. 1500-500 BCE): This is the earliest body of literature. It includes the four Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda), which are collections of hymns and rituals. These are followed by the Brahmanas (commentaries on Vedas), Aranyakas (‘forest texts’), and Upanishads (philosophical treatises on soul and ultimate reality).
• Epics (compiled c. 400 BCE – 400 CE): The Ramayana (by Valmiki) and the Mahabharata (by Vyasa) are India’s two great epics. They are foundational texts of Hinduism, containing narratives, mythology, and ethical teachings (like the Bhagavad Gita within the Mahabharata).
• Classical Sanskrit (Gupta & post-Gupta periods): This was a golden age for Sanskrit.
  • Drama and Poetry: The period produced masterpieces of drama and poetry by authors like Kalidasa ( Abhijnanashakuntalam ), Bhasa, Shudraka ( Mrichchhakatika ), and Bhavabhuti.
  • Prose and Fables: Notable prose works include Banabhatta’s Harshacharita . The Panchatantra and Hitopadesha are famous collections of fables with moral lessons that travelled across the world.

Pali and Prakrit Literature:

These were the languages of the common people and were primarily used by non-Brahmanical religions.

• Buddhist Literature: The Pali Canon ( Tripitaka ) contains the teachings of the Buddha. The Jataka tales, stories of the Buddha’s previous births, are also a major part of this literature.
• Jain Literature: The canonical texts of the Jains, known as the Agamas, were written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit.

Tamil Literature:

• Sangam Literature (c. 300 BCE – 300 CE): This is the earliest body of secular literature from South India. It consists of poetry collections classified into Akam (love) and Puram (war/public life).
• Post-Sangam Literature: This includes the twin epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai , and the Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar, a classic text on ethics, polity, and love.

In conclusion, early Indian literature reflects the subcontinent’s diverse religious, philosophical, and social concerns, creating a rich and enduring cultural heritage.

Q8. Write short notes on any two of the following in about 200 words each : (a) Pallava Architecture (b) Brahmagupta (c) Trade in the Gupta period (d) Management of water resources in early India

Ans. (a) Pallava Architecture The Pallava dynasty (c. 6th-9th centuries CE) were the pioneers of Dravidian temple architecture in South India, with their capital at Kanchipuram. Their architectural evolution can be divided into four distinct stages or styles. 1. Mahendra Style (c. 610-640): This marked the beginning of rock-cut architecture. Temples were excavated from solid rock and are known as mandapas (pillared halls). They were simple in design, with massive pillars and minimal ornamentation. Examples can be found at Mandagapattu and Pallavaram. 2. Mamalla Style (c. 640-674): Named after Narasimhavarman I ‘Mamalla’, this phase saw the creation of monolithic rathas (chariots) and more ornate mandapas . The famous ‘Five Rathas’ at Mahabalipuram, each carved from a single boulder, are prime examples. The ‘Arjuna’s Penance’ or ‘Descent of the Ganga’, a giant open-air bas-relief at Mahabalipuram, is a masterpiece of this period. 3. Rajasimha Style (c. 674-800): This stage marked a shift from rock-cut to structural temples, built with stone blocks. Temples became larger and more complex. The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram are the most famous examples, known for their pyramidal towers ( vimanas ) and intricate sculptures. 4. Nandivarman Style (Late Pallava): This was a continuation of the structural style but on a smaller scale. The Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram is a key example. Pallava architecture laid the essential groundwork for the grander temple-building traditions of the later Cholas. (b) Brahmagupta Brahmagupta was a brilliant Indian mathematician and astronomer who lived in the 7th century CE. His two major works are the Brahmasphutasiddhanta (The Corrected Treatise of Brahma, 628 CE) and the Khandakhadyaka (665 CE). His contributions had a profound impact on the history of science. In mathematics, Brahmagupta was the first to provide rules for computing with zero . He treated zero as a number and defined its properties in addition, subtraction, and multiplication (e.g., a – a = 0; a x 0 = 0), although his understanding of division by zero was incomplete. He gave a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (now known as Brahmagupta’s formula) and provided solutions for general linear and quadratic equations. He also made significant contributions to the study of Diophantine equations. In astronomy, his Brahmasphutasiddhanta discussed topics like the longitudes of planets, lunar and solar eclipses, and the rising and setting of celestial bodies. His work was highly influential. It was translated into Arabic in Baghdad around 800 CE, which was instrumental in introducing the Indian decimal numeral system and the concept of zero to the Arab world, and subsequently to Europe. (c) Trade in the Gupta period The Gupta period (c. 4th-6th centuries CE) saw a continuation of trade, but with significant changes from the preceding era. The highly profitable direct trade with the Roman Empire , which had flourished under the Kushanas and Satavahanas, declined significantly by the 3rd century CE. This is evidenced by the scarcity of Roman coins from this period in India. The decline was mainly due to the internal turmoil and economic crisis in the Roman Empire. To compensate for this, trade with Southeast Asia (known as Suvarnabhumi or Land of Gold) and China intensified. India exported textiles, spices, precious stones, and ivory. It imported silk from China (via both land and sea routes) and spices from Southeast Asia. This eastern trade became a major source of wealth and also facilitated the spread of Indian culture in the region. Internal trade remained active, with goods transported via rivers and a network of roads. Key trade centres included Ujjain, Prayaga, Varanasi, and the port of Tamralipti in Bengal, which was crucial for eastern trade. Merchants and artisans were organized into powerful guilds ( shrenis ) which functioned as banks, had their own laws, and made large donations, as evidenced by inscriptions and seals found at sites like Vaishali. (d) Management of water resources in early India Water management was crucial for agriculture, the backbone of the early Indian economy. A variety of sophisticated techniques were developed and employed from ancient times to harness and manage water resources. Sources like Kautilya’s Arthashastra discuss state-managed irrigation, while numerous inscriptions record the construction and maintenance of waterworks by kings, communities, and individuals. The primary techniques included:

• Canals: Used to divert water from rivers to fields. The Mauryan state was known to be actively involved in canal construction.
• Tanks and Reservoirs: This was the most common method, especially in the Deccan and South India. Rainwater was stored by building embankments across natural depressions. Temple tanks were also a key feature of the landscape.
• Wells: Used to draw groundwater, often with the help of animal power. The ‘Persian wheel’ ( araghatta ), a more efficient water-lifting device, became more common in the post-Gupta period.
• Dams and Embankments: The Sudarshana Lake at Girnar (Gujarat) is a famous example. Originally built by the Mauryas, it was repaired by the Shaka ruler Rudradaman in the 2nd century CE and later by a Gupta governor, showing a long tradition of state involvement in large-scale projects. The Grand Anicut (Kallanai) , an ancient dam built on the Kaveri River by a Chola king around the 2nd century CE, is a remarkable feat of engineering that is still in use.

Water management was a shared responsibility between the state, which built large projects, and local communities, which maintained smaller tanks and canals.