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IGNOU BHIC-105 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. Analyse the importance of biographies in reconstructing the history of the early medieval period in India.

Ans. Biographies, known as charitas , are a vital literary source for reconstructing the history of early medieval India (c. 750-1206 C.E.). These works, typically composed by court poets in praise of their royal patrons, offer invaluable insights into the political, social, and cultural milieu of the era, despite their inherent limitations.

Importance in Historical Reconstruction:

• Political History: Biographies provide detailed narratives of dynastic history, rules of succession, military campaigns, and the political achievements of kings. For example, Banabhatta’s Harshacharita (though slightly pre-dating the period, it set a trend), Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita on the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI, and Sandhyakaranandi’s Ramacharita on the Pala king Ramapala offer vivid accounts of the events of their respective reigns.
• Administrative and Social Information: These texts shed light on the administrative machinery, the samanta (feudatory) system, court culture, and royal patronage. They also provide a glimpse into the personality, ideals, and statecraft of the ruler, even if it is an idealized portrayal.
• Cultural Landscape: The descriptions of courtly life, festivals, religious ceremonies, and artistic patronage in these biographies help us understand the cultural vibrancy of the age. The literary style and use of rhetoric ( alankara ) also reflect the prevailing literary standards.

Limitations and Critical Assessment: Historians must exercise caution while using these biographies due to their significant limitations:

• Panegyrical Nature: These are essentially eulogies that exaggerate the king’s successes and virtues while conveniently omitting or glossing over their failures and weaknesses.
• Elitist Perspective: The narrative is entirely focused on the patron king and the elite class. The lives of common people, their hardships, and the broader social realities are largely ignored.
• Mixture of Fact and Fiction: Historical facts are often intertwined with literary embellishments, mythological elements, and poetic fancy, making it challenging to separate history from hagiography.

In conclusion, despite their panegyrical and one-sided nature, biographies are an indispensable source for the early medieval period. When used critically and corroborated with other sources like inscriptions, coins, and archaeological evidence, they are immensely helpful in understanding the political ethos and cultural world of the ruling elite of the time.

Q2. Write a note on the local administration under the Cholas.

Ans. The Chola empire, renowned for its naval supremacy and magnificent temples, is equally celebrated for its highly organized and efficient system of local self-government . This system fostered autonomy and participation at the grassroots level, contributing significantly to the stability and prosperity of the empire. Our primary sources for Chola local administration are their numerous inscriptions, particularly the famous Uttaramerur inscriptions of Parantaka I .

Chola local administration was primarily conducted through three types of assemblies:

1. The Ur: This was the assembly of the common, non-Brahmin land-owning villagers. It was responsible for managing the public property of the village, settling minor disputes, and collecting taxes on behalf of the central government.
2. The Sabha or Mahasabha: This was the assembly in brahmadeya villages (villages granted to Brahmins). It was the most sophisticated and powerful local body. As detailed in the Uttaramerur inscriptions, there were strict eligibility criteria for membership, including a minimum amount of land ownership, knowledge of the Vedas, a specific age range (35-70 years), and good moral character. Members were selected through a lottery system known as kudavolai (drawing lots with names written on palm leaves from a pot). The Sabha functioned through various committees ( variyams ) responsible for specific tasks like management of gardens, tanks (irrigation), justice, etc.
3. The Nagaram: This was an assembly of merchants, traders, and artisans in commercial centres and towns. It regulated commercial activities, managed markets, and was responsible for the collection of trade-related taxes.

While these local assemblies enjoyed a great deal of autonomy in their internal affairs, they were not completely independent. They operated within the larger framework of the Chola state. Royal officers were appointed to oversee their functioning and ensure compliance with imperial edicts.

In conclusion, the Chola system of local administration was a remarkable example of decentralized governance. It not only ensured efficient management of local resources but also provided an opportunity for people to participate in administration, which became a cornerstone of the longevity and prosperity of the Chola empire.

Q3. Discuss briefly the feudalism debate.

Ans. The “Indian Feudalism debate” is a significant academic discussion among historians regarding the nature of the socio-economic and political structure of early medieval India (c. 750-1206 C.E.). The core of the debate is whether the conditions in this period can be characterized as “feudal,” drawing a parallel with medieval Europe.

The Indian Feudalism Thesis: This model was pioneered by D. D. Kosambi and extensively elaborated by Ram Sharan Sharma (R.S. Sharma) . According to them, early medieval India witnessed the emergence of a feudal system, characterized by:

• Political Decentralization: The decline of the king’s absolute power and the rise of a class of intermediaries called samantas (vassal chiefs) who stood between the state and the peasantry.
• Land Grants: The widespread practice of kings granting land ( brahmadeya , agrahara ) to Brahmins, temples, and state officials as a mode of payment, often with the transfer of administrative and judicial rights.
• Subjection of Peasantry: A decline in the status of peasants, who faced restricted mobility, were subjected to forced labour ( vishti ), and had to pay heavy revenues.
• Decline in Trade and Urbanism: This model argues that long-distance trade declined, coinage became scarce, and cities decayed, leading to a closed, self-sufficient, and natural economy at the village level.

The Critique of the Feudalism Thesis: Later historians challenged R.S. Sharma’s model on several grounds:

• Harbans Mukhia: He argued that the key feature of European feudalism, serfdom, was absent in India. He proposed a “free peasant production” model, contending that the Indian peasantry largely retained control over the means of production. The high fertility of Indian soil made it possible to extract surplus without enserfing the peasantry.
• B. D. Chattopadhyaya: He contested the idea of urban decay and decline in trade. Using archaeological and epigraphic evidence, he argued for a “third urbanization,” pointing to the emergence of new market centres ( mandapikas ) and robust trade networks. He proposed an “integrative model” of state formation, viewing the period not as one of disintegration but of the integration of local polities into larger state structures.
• Other Critiques: Critics also point out that “feudalism” is a Eurocentric concept and its application to the diverse Indian context is problematic. The model tends to overlook regional variations.

In conclusion, the feudalism debate has profoundly enriched the study of early medieval India. While the “Indian Feudalism” model is no longer universally accepted, it provided a crucial framework that stimulated further research. Today, historians tend to view the period as a complex process of change, continuity, and integration, rather than one of simple decay.

Q4. Write short notes on any two of the following in about 200 words each : (a) Origin of the Rajputs (b) Merchant Guilds (c) Sculpture in the early medieval period (d) Temple architecture

Ans. (a) Origin of the Rajputs

The emergence of various Rajput clans as the dominant political force in northern and western India was a defining feature of the early medieval period. The term ‘Rajput’ is derived from the Sanskrit ‘Rajaputra’, meaning ‘son of a king’. Their origins are a subject of historical debate, with several competing theories.

The most famous theory is the Agnikula myth , described in Chand Bardai’s epic Prithviraj Raso . It states that four clans—the Pratiharas, Chauhans, Chalukyas (Solankis), and Paramaras—were born from a sacrificial fire ( agnikunda ) performed by the sage Vasishtha on Mount Abu. This is largely considered a legitimizing myth created to give these clans a heroic and divine origin.

Another theory, proposed by scholars like Col. James Tod, is that of foreign origin . It suggests that Rajputs were descendants of foreign invaders like the Sakas, Kushanas, and Hunas, who were assimilated into Hindu society and given the status of Kshatriyas.

The most widely accepted theory today is that of indigenous origin , supported by historians like G.H. Ojha. This view posits that the Rajputs arose from a variety of indigenous stocks, including local tribes, Brahmin families, and existing Kshatriya lineages. It was a process of social mobility whereby different groups that acquired political power sought Kshatriya status by fabricating genealogies and adopting martial traditions. Thus, ‘Rajput’ was more of a social and political category than a single ethnic group.

(d) Temple architecture

The early medieval period was the golden age of temple architecture in India, with the crystallization of distinct regional styles. Temples were not just places of worship but also major social, economic, and political centres. The three main architectural styles were Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara.

The Nagara style , prevalent in North India, is characterized by a curvilinear tower called a shikhara , which culminates in an amalaka (a circular, ribbed stone) and a kalasha (finial). The ground plan is typically a square with several projections ( rathas ), creating a cruciform shape. Prominent examples include the Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho and the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar.

The Dravida style , found in South India, features a pyramidal tower known as a vimana , which consists of multiple, progressively smaller storeys. The temple complex is often enclosed by high compound walls ( prakaras ) with massive gateway towers called gopurams . The Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, built by the Cholas, is a masterpiece of this style.

The Vesara style , primarily seen in the Deccan (Karnataka), is a hybrid of the Nagara and Dravida styles. Developed by the Chalukyas and perfected by the Hoysalas, it combines the Dravida vimana with a Nagara-like shikhara. The ground plans are often intricate and star-shaped (stellate). The temples at Aihole and the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu are key examples.

Q5. Discuss briefly the developments in science and technology in the early medieval period.

Ans. The early medieval period in India (c. 750-1206 C.E.), often viewed as a time of political fragmentation, witnessed significant continuity and development in science and technology. While it may not have produced revolutionary breakthroughs like the Gupta era, it was a period of consolidation, application, and refinement of existing knowledge.

Mathematics and Astronomy: The period continued the legacy of great mathematicians like Aryabhata and Brahmagupta.

• Mahaviracharya (9th century) compiled mathematical knowledge in his work Ganita-sara-sangraha .
• The most brilliant figure of the age was Bhaskaracharya II (12th century). His magnum opus, Siddhanta-Shiromani , is divided into four parts: Lilavati (arithmetic), Bijaganita (algebra), Goladhyaya (on spheres), and Grahaganita (mathematics of planets). He made significant contributions to algebra, number theory, and the foundational concepts of calculus.

Medicine (Ayurveda): This era was more focused on compilation and commentary rather than new discoveries.

• Vagbhata’s Ashtanga-hridayam became a standard textbook, summarizing the works of earlier masters.
• Specialized treatises like Madhava’s Rug-vinischaya on pathology (diagnosis of diseases) were composed.
• Given the military importance of horses and elephants, veterinary science flourished, with texts like the Asvayurveda (on horses) being written.

Technology: Applied technology saw notable advancements.

• Agriculture and Irrigation: The use of the araghata (Persian wheel) became more widespread, significantly improving irrigation from wells. Rulers like the Cholas and Raja Bhoja of the Paramara dynasty undertook massive irrigation projects, building large tanks and lakes.
• Metallurgy: The period is famed for the excellence of Chola bronze casting using the lost-wax ( cire perdue ) technique, exemplified by the iconic Nataraja statues. The knowledge of advanced iron technology, as seen in the rust-resistant Iron Pillar of Delhi (from an earlier period), was clearly preserved.
• Architecture: The construction of colossal stone temples like those at Khajuraho and Thanjavur, without modern machinery, demonstrates a high level of knowledge in engineering, quarrying, structural mechanics, and logistics.

In conclusion, the early medieval period was not an era of scientific stagnation. It was a time that saw the practical application and refinement of India’s rich scientific heritage, particularly in fields with direct utility like medicine, irrigation, and architecture.

Q6. Write a note on the Shakti cult in the early medieval period.

Ans. The early medieval period (c. 750-1206 C.E.) was pivotal for the rise and consolidation of Shaktism , or the Shakti cult, as a major independent sect within Hinduism. Shaktism revolves around the worship of the female principle, Shakti or Devi (Goddess), as the Supreme Being, the ultimate source of all creation and cosmic energy.

Textual and Philosophical Basis: During this period, the worship of the Goddess was given a strong scriptural and philosophical foundation.

• Devi Mahatmya : A part of the Markandeya Purana (composed slightly earlier but popularized in this period), this text is the cornerstone of Shaktism. It glorifies the Goddess, particularly in her form as Durga Mahishasuramardini (the slayer of the buffalo demon), establishing her as the supreme power, even superior to the male trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
• Tantras: A vast body of esoteric texts known as the Tantras provided the ritualistic and philosophical framework for Shakti worship. Tantra emphasizes the use of mantras (sacred sounds), yantras (mystical diagrams), and complex rituals to channel divine energy and attain spiritual liberation.

Forms of the Goddess and Centres of Worship: The Goddess was worshipped in a multitude of forms, both benevolent and fierce.

• Benevolent forms: Parvati, Lakshmi, and Saraswati.
• Fierce forms: Durga, Kali, and Chamunda, who destroy evil and protect dharma, became extremely popular.
• Folk and Tribal Deities: Many local and tribal goddesses ( grama-devatas ) were assimilated into the larger Shakta pantheon, broadening its appeal.

This period also saw the growth and systematization of

Shakti Pithas

, sacred sites believed to be places where parts of the goddess Sati’s body fell. Important centres like Kamakhya in Assam, Kalighat in Bengal, and Jwalamukhi in Himachal Pradesh rose to prominence.

In essence, the early medieval era transformed the worship of the Goddess from a diverse set of folk traditions into a sophisticated and powerful religious system with its own distinct theology, scriptures, and sacred geography, making it one of the most vibrant components of Hinduism.

Q7. Write a note on the main features of the agrarian economy in the early medieval period.

Ans. The economy of early medieval India (c. 750-1206 C.E.) was overwhelmingly agrarian . Land was the primary source of wealth and power, and the entire socio-political structure was built upon its produce. The key features of the agrarian economy of this period are as follows:

1. The System of Land Grants: A defining characteristic of the era was the widespread practice of kings granting land to Brahmins ( brahmadeya ), temples ( devadana ), and state officials. These grants often involved not just the transfer of land, but also the rights to revenue, water resources, and administrative/judicial authority over the peasants and artisans living on that land. This practice created a class of landed intermediaries between the king and the actual tiller of the soil, a central argument in the “Indian Feudalism” debate.

2. Expansion of Agriculture and Irrigation Technology: The land grant system encouraged the expansion of cultivation into new, previously uncultivated areas. This period also witnessed significant technological advancements in irrigation. The use of the araghata (a gear-based water wheel, often called the Persian wheel) became more common, greatly enhancing the efficiency of drawing water from wells. Rulers, especially in the south like the Cholas and in central India like the Paramara king Bhoja, commissioned the construction of massive tanks, lakes, and canals for irrigation, boosting agricultural productivity.

3. The Condition of the Peasantry: The status of the peasantry is a matter of historical debate. Proponents of the feudalism model, like R.S. Sharma, argue that the peasants became increasingly subjugated. They faced a heavy burden of taxes (ranging from one-sixth to one-third of the produce), their mobility was restricted, and they were subjected to forced labour ( vishti ). In contrast, other historians like Harbans Mukhia argue that the peasantry largely remained free and retained control over their means of production.

4. The Rural Economy: The village was the basic unit of production. According to the feudalism thesis, the economy became localized and self-sufficient. However, recent studies challenge this, showing evidence of trade in agricultural surplus and the existence of local market centres ( hattas , mandapikas ) that connected villages to wider trade networks.

In conclusion, the early medieval agrarian economy was complex, marked by an expansion of cultivation, a hierarchical land rights structure created by grants, and technological progress in irrigation.

Q8. Write short notes on any two of the following in 200 words each : (a) Bhakti Movement in North India (b) Guilds (c) Tamil and Kannada Literature (d) Nayanars and Alvars

Ans. (c) Tamil and Kannada Literature

The early medieval period was a golden age for vernacular literature in South India, with Tamil and Kannada flourishing under royal patronage and producing works of immense literary and religious significance.

Tamil Literature: The devotional Bhakti movement profoundly influenced Tamil literature during this period. The hymns of the Shaiva Nayanar saints and the Vaishnava Alvar saints are the era’s greatest literary legacy. The Nayanars’ hymns were compiled in the Tevaram , and the Alvars’ in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham . These works are celebrated for their lyrical beauty, emotional intensity, and direct expression of devotion. Later in the period, under Chola patronage, the poet Kamban composed his epic Ramavataram , popularly known as the Kamba Ramayana. It is considered a classic of Tamil literature, retelling Valmiki’s epic with a unique Tamil cultural and devotional flavour.

Kannada Literature: Kannada literature began its classical phase under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas. King Amoghavarsha I is credited with authoring Kavirajamarga , the earliest extant work on poetics in Kannada. The 10th century saw the flourishing of the “Three Gems” ( Ratnatraya ) of Kannada literature: Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna . All were Jaina poets. Pampa’s masterpiece, Vikramarjuna Vijaya (or Pampa Bharata), retells the Mahabharata, ingeniously identifying his patron king with the hero Arjuna. These poets established Kannada as a sophisticated literary language, capable of producing great epic poetry.

(d) Nayanars and Alvars

The Nayanars and Alvars were the poet-saints of the Tamil Nadu region who spearheaded the Bhakti movement between the 6th and 9th centuries. They championed a new form of religion based on intense personal devotion and love for a personal god, challenging the orthodox, ritual-centric Brahmanism and the influence of Buddhism and Jainism.

Nayanars: The Nayanars were 63 saints who were devotees of the god Shiva . They came from a wide range of social backgrounds, including kings, Brahmins, merchants, and even so-called “low-castes,” highlighting the inclusive nature of the movement. Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar are among the most prominent Nayanars. Their devotional hymns were compiled in the 11th century into a collection called the Tirumurai , the first seven books of which are known as the Tevaram .

Alvars: The Alvars were 12 saints who were devotees of the god Vishnu and his various avatars. Like the Nayanars, they also came from diverse social strata. The female saint Andal and the saint Nammalvar are among the most revered. Their collection of 4,000 hymns, known as the Nalayira Divya Prabandham (‘Four Thousand Divine Compositions’), is highly venerated in the Vaishnava tradition and is often called the ‘Tamil Veda’.

Together, the Nayanars and Alvars transformed the religious landscape of South India. By composing their hymns in the vernacular Tamil language, they made religion accessible to all, and their legacy was foundational for the pan-Indian Bhakti movement that followed.