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IGNOU BPSC-105 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. Discuss the nature and scope of Comparative Politics.

Ans. Comparative Politics is a major subfield of Political Science that involves the systematic study and comparison of political systems, processes, and behaviours within countries. Its purpose is to develop a better understanding of political phenomena, build theories, and predict political outcomes. Nature: The nature of Comparative Politics has evolved over time. Traditionally, it was descriptive and institutional, focusing mainly on the constitutions and formal government structures of Western European countries. However, after World War II, under the influence of the behavioural revolution, its nature changed significantly.

• Analytical and Empirical: Modern comparative politics seeks to explain ‘why’ and ‘how’ rather than just describing ‘what’. It emphasizes formulating hypotheses and testing them through empirical evidence.
• Interdisciplinary Approach: It borrows concepts and methods from other social sciences like sociology, economics, psychology, and anthropology to understand politics. Concepts like political culture, socialization, and political economy have become central.
• Search for Scientificity: It aims to make generalizations and build theories about the political world. It uses rigorous research methods, such as statistical analysis and case studies.
• Both Value-Free and Value-Laden: Although it strives for value-free analysis, normative concerns such as democracy, justice, and human rights also remain at the core of its study.

Scope:

The scope of Comparative Politics is vast and dynamic. Initially, its scope was limited to the study of a few major European governments. However, following decolonization in the mid-20th century, its scope expanded dramatically to include the newly independent nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

The modern scope of Comparative Politics includes:

• Political Institutions: The study of formal institutions like the legislature, executive, judiciary, and bureaucracy.
• Political Processes and Behaviour: Political parties, pressure groups, elections, voting behaviour, and political communication.
• Political Development and Modernization: Processes like nation-building, state-building, political instability, and transitions to democracy.
• Political Economy: The relationship between the state, market, and society, policies of development, and the impact of globalization.
• State-Society Relations: Civil society, social movements, and identity politics (e.g., ethnicity, religion, and gender).
• Public Policies: The comparison of policymaking processes and their outcomes across different countries.

In conclusion, Comparative Politics is a dynamic field that is constantly expanding its frontiers to understand the complexities of political reality.

Q2. What do you understand by comparative method?

Ans. The comparative method is a fundamental research strategy in political science, particularly in the subfield of comparative politics. It is a process by which researchers draw conclusions about the causes and consequences of political phenomena by comparing different cases (e.g., countries, political systems, institutions). Its main purpose is to test hypotheses, discover empirical relationships, and develop theoretical generalizations about the political world. Since conducting controlled experiments, as in the natural sciences, is often impossible in political science, the comparative method serves as a substitute. It attempts to control for variables by systematically analyzing similarities and differences across cases. Political scientist Arend Lijphart identified the comparative method as one of three main research methods, the other two being the experimental and statistical methods. In its narrow sense, the comparative method refers to the qualitative analysis of a small number of cases (small-N). It has two main logics: 1. Most Similar Systems Design (MSSD): In this approach, researchers select cases that are similar in many important characteristics (e.g., culture, history, economic development) but differ in their outcomes. For example, one of two similar democracies is stable while the other is unstable. Since most variables are similar, the researcher can try to identify the one key factor that causes the difference in outcomes. This is the study of ‘similar cases with different outcomes’. 2. Most Different Systems Design (MDSD): In this approach, researchers select cases that are very different in almost every aspect but share the same outcome. For example, a revolution occurring in both an agrarian monarchy and an industrial republic. Since the cases are so different, the researcher can argue that the few common factors they share are likely the cause of the similar outcome. This is the study of ‘different cases with the same outcome’. Challenges: While powerful, the comparative method is not without challenges:

• Too Many Variables, Too Few Cases: Often, the number of potential explanatory variables exceeds the number of available cases, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions.
• Selection Bias: Researchers might unintentionally select cases that support their hypothesis.
• Conceptual Stretching: The original meaning of a concept (like ‘democracy’) may be lost when it is applied to diverse contexts.

Despite these challenges, the comparative method remains an indispensable tool for understanding causal relationships between political phenomena and for theory building.

Q3. Examine development as Modernization.

Ans. The theory of development as modernization, known as Modernization Theory , was a dominant paradigm in the 1950s and 1960s. Emerging in the context of the Cold War, it aimed to understand and guide the development path of the newly independent nations of the ‘Third World’. The theory views development as a process in which societies transition from a ‘traditional’ to a ‘modern’ stage, based largely on the experience of Western industrial societies. Core Tenets of Modernization Theory: 1. A Unilinear Path: The theory posits that all societies pass through the same stages of development. It is a linear process that starts with traditional, agrarian societies and ends with modern, industrial, and capitalist societies. W. W. Rostow articulated this in his ‘Stages of Economic Growth’ model, which outlined five stages from traditional society to the ‘age of high mass-consumption’. 2. A Systemic Process: Modernization is seen as a comprehensive and transformative process affecting all aspects of society—economic, political, social, and cultural.

• Economic Modernization: Industrialization, technological advancement, growth in GDP, and the development of a market economy.
• Political Modernization: The development of modern political institutions like democracy, bureaucracy, secular-rational law, and a strong nation-state. Samuel Huntington emphasized political order and stability.
• Socio-cultural Modernization: A shift from traditional values (e.g., collectivism, fatalism) to modern values (e.g., individualism, achievement, rationalism). Urbanization, increased literacy, and exposure to mass media were seen as key drivers of this process (as described by Daniel Lerner).

Critical Examination:

By the late 1960s, modernization theory came under severe criticism on several grounds:

• Ethnocentric: The biggest critique is that it presents the Western model of development as the universal and only desirable standard. It ignores the unique historical and cultural contexts of non-Western societies.
• Ignoring Historical Context: The theory overlooks the impact of colonialism. Dependency theorists (like Andre Gunder Frank) argued that the development of the West was actually achieved at the cost of the ‘underdevelopment’ of the Third World, not as a model for it.
• Internal Contradictions: Modernization does not always lead to progress and stability. As Huntington himself later argued, rapid social and economic change can lead to ‘political decay’ and instability if political institutions are not strong.
• Oversimplification: It presents a simple dichotomy between ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’, whereas in reality, both elements often coexist and interact in complex ways.

In conclusion, while modernization theory made important contributions to the study of development, it has been largely discredited due to its linear and ethnocentric assumptions. It paved the way for later theories, such as Dependency Theory and World-Systems Theory, which focus on the global structural causes of development and underdevelopment.

Q4. Trace the evolution of socialism.

Ans. Socialism is a diverse and broad political and economic ideology whose central feature is social ownership and control of the means of production (e.g., factories, land, machinery). It aims to eliminate the inequality, exploitation, and alienation generated by capitalism and to create a more egalitarian and cooperative society. The evolution of socialism has taken place over several stages and forms in the past two centuries. 1. Utopian Socialism: The roots of socialism are found in the early 19th century as a response to the harsh conditions of the Industrial Revolution. Early thinkers like Robert Owen (Britain), Charles Fourier, and Henri de Saint-Simon (France) are called ‘Utopian Socialists’. They envisioned ideal communities (like Owen’s New Lanark) based on cooperation instead of competition. However, their ideas were idealistic and they lacked a practical political strategy for achieving these societies. 2. Marxism or Scientific Socialism: In the mid-19th century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels provided a systematic and ‘scientific’ basis for socialism. In ‘The Communist Manifesto’ (1848) and ‘Das Kapital’, they presented a profound critique of capitalism. Their main theories were:

• Historical Materialism: History is the result of conflict between classes.
• Class Struggle: In capitalist society, this struggle is between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class).
• Surplus Value and Exploitation: The capitalist exploits the worker by appropriating the surplus value generated by their labour.
• Inevitability of Revolution: They predicted that the proletariat would overthrow the capitalist system through a violent revolution.

According to Marx, the revolution would be followed by a transitional phase, the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ (socialism), which would eventually lead to a classless and stateless ‘communist’ society.

3. The Split in the Movement: Revolutionary vs. Evolutionary Socialism:

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the socialist movement split into two main currents:

• Revolutionary Socialism (Communism): Leaders like Vladimir Lenin revised Marxism, arguing that a ‘vanguard party’ of professional revolutionaries was needed to lead the revolution. The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a major victory for this view and gave birth to the Soviet Union and the global communist movement.
• Evolutionary Socialism (Democratic Socialism/Social Democracy): Thinkers like Eduard Bernstein rejected Marx’s theory of revolution. They argued that socialism could be achieved gradually and peacefully through existing democratic processes (e.g., contesting elections, passing reform legislation). This stream became dominant in Western Europe, especially in Germany, Sweden, and Britain.

4. Socialism in the 20th and 21st Centuries:

After World War II, social democratic parties in Western Europe built welfare states, which combined a market economy with social security, healthcare, and education. In the 1980s and 1990s, the rise of neoliberalism and the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991) dealt a major blow to socialist ideas. Many social democratic parties adopted a ‘Third Way’, a move towards the market. However, due to problems like the 2008 financial crisis, rising inequality, and climate change, the 21st century has seen a renewed interest in socialist ideas, with figures like Bernie Sanders and Jeremy Corbyn.

Q5. Write short notes on the following in about 200 words each : (a) Decolonization (b) U.K. Parliament

Ans. (a) Decolonization Decolonization is the process by which colonial territories become independent and sovereign nation-states, free from the rule of colonial powers. It is the undoing of colonialism. Although this process began in the Americas in the late 18th century, its most intense and widespread phase occurred after World War II, between 1945 and 1975, when most of the countries in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East gained independence. There were several key drivers of decolonization:

• Rise of Nationalist Movements: Powerful nationalist movements, led by educated elites in the colonies, emerged to demand freedom and self-determination. Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru in India, and Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam are prominent examples.
• Weakening of Colonial Powers: The Second World War economically and militarily weakened major colonial powers like Britain and France, making it difficult for them to maintain their vast empires.
• International Pressure: The newly emerged superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, were both, for their own reasons, opposed to European colonialism. Furthermore, the United Nations championed the principle of self-determination.

Decolonization led to the birth of dozens of new nations but also posed serious challenges for these new countries, including nation-building, political instability, economic dependency (neo-colonialism), and border disputes.

(b) U.K. Parliament

The Parliament of the United Kingdom is the supreme legislative body in the UK. Located in Westminster, London, it is based on a bicameral system. Its structure comprises three components: the Monarch, the House of Lords (the upper house), and the House of Commons (the lower house).

The most important principle of the UK Parliament is

Parliamentary Sovereignty

. This means that Parliament is the supreme law-making authority, and no other body, not even the courts, can invalidate the laws it passes.

Its two houses are:

• The House of Commons: This is the democratically elected chamber, comprising 650 Members of Parliament (MPs). Members are elected through the ‘First-Past-the-Post’ electoral system. The government is formed by the party that commands a majority in this house. It is the primary chamber for making laws, scrutinizing the government, and authorizing taxation.
• The House of Lords: This is a largely unelected chamber. Its members include hereditary peers, life peers (appointed for their achievements), and senior bishops of the Church of England. Its main function is to revise and scrutinize bills passed by the House of Commons. It can delay legislation but cannot block most bills.

The Monarch’s role is largely ceremonial, such as giving Royal Assent to bills, which makes them law.

Q6. Write short notes on the following in about 200 words each : (a) Development (b) Essential features of Federation

Ans. (a) Development Development is a multi-faceted and complex concept that implies improvement and positive change over time. Its definition and meaning have evolved. Traditionally, development was primarily equated with economic growth . It was measured by indicators such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, industrialization, and technological progress. According to this view, a country was considered developed when its economy was strong. However, from the 1970s onwards, this narrow view was criticized, and a more comprehensive, humanistic understanding of development emerged. Nobel laureate Amartya Sen defined development as ‘capability expansion’ . According to him, development means expanding the freedoms and choices people have to live lives they value. This includes not just income, but also health, education, political freedom, and human rights. More recently, the concept of Sustainable Development has become prominent. It was defined by the Brundtland Commission as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” It emphasizes balancing economic, social, and environmental goals. To measure development, indicators like the Human Development Index (HDI) are now used, which combines life expectancy, education, and income. (b) Essential features of Federation A Federation is a system of government in which power is divided between a central or national government and several regional or state governments. This is in contrast to a unitary government, where all powers are vested in the central government. In a federation, both the central and state governments are granted autonomy and supremacy within their respective spheres of authority by the constitution. The following are the essential features of a federal system:

1. Dual Government: A federal system has two levels of government – a national or federal government and state or provincial governments.
2. Written Constitution: The division of powers is clearly laid down in a written constitution, which is the supreme law of the land.
3. Division of Powers: The constitution divides legislative, administrative, and financial powers between the center and the states. This is usually done through a Union List, State List, and Concurrent List.
4. Supremacy of the Constitution: Both the central and state governments are bound by the provisions of the constitution and must operate within its framework.
5. Rigid Constitution: The procedure for amending constitutional provisions related to the federal structure is complex, typically requiring the consent of both the central and state units.
6. Independent Judiciary: There is an independent judiciary that acts as the guardian of the constitution. It resolves disputes between the center and the states or among the states and interprets the constitution.

Q7. Write a note on the role of Communist Party in China.

Ans. The role of the Communist Party of China (CPC) is paramount and all-encompassing. It is not merely a ruling party but an institution that controls and directs every aspect of the state, society, and economy of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). The CPC has been the sole ruling party since the founding of the PRC in 1949. China’s political system is described as a ‘Party-State’ system, where the lines between the party and the state are blurred, and the party has absolute dominance over the state apparatus. China’s constitution itself enshrines the ‘leading role’ of the CPC. Role and Functions of the Communist Party: 1. Political Monopoly and Leadership: The CPC holds absolute political power. No opposition parties are permitted to exist. The party controls appointments to all key governmental, military (via the Central Military Commission), and judicial positions. The function of the state is to implement the policies determined by the party. 2. Organizational Principle – Democratic Centralism: The party operates on the principle of ‘democratic centralism’. This means that policy issues can be discussed internally (democracy), but once a decision is made by the party leadership, all members and lower units must adhere to it without question (centralism). In practice, centralism dominates, ensuring a highly disciplined and hierarchical structure. 3. Policy Making: All major national and international policies are made not by the government, but by the party’s top bodies, such as the Politburo and its Standing Committee. The government’s role is limited to implementing these policies. 4. Control over Personnel (Nomenklatura System): The party’s Organization Department manages the careers of millions of government officials, judges, and company executives. This system ensures that only ideologically loyal individuals are appointed to key positions. 5. Social Control and Ideology: The CPC maintains tight control over the media, education system, and the internet (through the Great Firewall) to promote its ideology and suppress dissent. It uses propaganda and censorship on a massive scale to shape public opinion and maintain social stability. 6. Economic Direction: Although China has embraced market reforms under ‘Socialism with Chinese Characteristics’, the CPC still controls the strategic direction of the economy. It does so through its control over state-owned enterprises (SOEs), five-year plans, and the financial sector. In short, the Communist Party in China does not function like a traditional political party but is the very core of the state, exercising its power in every sphere of political, social, and economic life.

Q8. Compare and contrast the Brazilian and Nigerian experience of federalism.

Ans. Brazil and Nigeria, both large, diverse, and developing countries, have adopted federalism to manage their vast regional, ethnic, and linguistic diversities. However, their historical paths, particularly the experience with military rule and the nature of their diversity, have shaped their federal experiences in distinct ways. Comparison (Similarities):

• Motive for Federalism: In both countries, federalism was adopted as a tool to accommodate diversity. Nigeria has over 250 ethnic groups, while Brazil has significant regional, economic, and cultural disparities.
• Three Tiers of Government: Both countries have a three-tiered structure of government at the federal, state, and municipal levels.
• Experience with Military Rule: Both nations have experienced long periods of military dictatorship, which severely weakened federal principles by centralizing power.
• Fiscal Federalism Challenges: Both countries grapple with issues of revenue allocation. There is often tension between the central government and the states over the distribution of national resources (oil revenue in Nigeria, taxes in Brazil).
• Strong Presidency: Both systems are characterized by a powerful presidency, which can sometimes overshadow federal arrangements.

Contrast (Differences):

1. Nature of Diversity:

• Nigeria: Federalism here is primarily driven by deep ethnic and religious cleavages (North-Muslim vs. South-Christian; and the major ethnic groups – Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo). States have been largely created along ethnic lines.
• Brazil: Federalism here is more about managing regional economic inequalities (wealthy Southeast vs. poorer Northeast) and historical administrative divisions. Ethnicity is a less salient political cleavage.

2. Dynamics of Centralization vs. Decentralization:

• Nigeria: Centralization was a tool of military rule. In response, constant demands for decentralization led to the creation of more and more states (from 3 regions to 36 states). Paradoxically, this has made the states weaker and more dependent on the central government for oil revenues. This is often called ‘revenue-sharing federalism’.
• Brazil: The 1988 constitution marked a significant decentralization of powers and resources to states and municipalities after military rule. Brazilian states and municipalities have more autonomy and taxation powers compared to their Nigerian counterparts. It is often described as a highly decentralized federation.

3. Power and Behaviour of States:

• Nigeria: State governments are financially weak and heavily dependent on monthly allocations from the ‘Federal Account’. Their primary concern is to secure more revenue from the center.
• Brazil: States, especially wealthy ones like São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, are powerful political and economic actors that can challenge and influence the policies of the federal government.

In conclusion, while both Brazil and Nigeria use a federal framework, Nigeria’s federalism is defined by ethnic competition and dependence on centralized revenue, whereas Brazil’s is characterized by stronger states and more genuine fiscal decentralization.