IGNOU MEDS-074 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU MEDS-074 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

IGNOU MEDS-074 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in English

Q1. What are the main causes of inequality ? Suggest few remedies for the removal of inequality. 8+2

Ans. Inequality, meaning the uneven distribution of resources, opportunities, and outcomes within a society, is a multifaceted problem with deep historical, social, and economic roots. Main Causes of Inequality:

• Economic Factors: The unequal distribution of wealth and income is a primary driver of inequality. Wealth becomes concentrated in a few hands, leading to unequal access to opportunities. Liberalisation and globalisation have created opportunities for skilled labour but have often left unskilled workers behind, widening the income gap.
• Social Factors: Deep-rooted social structures, such as the caste system in India, have historically caused discrimination and inequality. Similarly, gender-based discrimination denies women equal access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities. Discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, and race also contributes to inequality worldwide.
• Political and Institutional Factors: Weak governance, corruption , and policies that favour the wealthy can exacerbate inequality. Political power often follows economic power, creating a cycle where the rich influence policies to further enhance their wealth and influence.
• Unequal Access to Education and Health: Disparities in access to quality education and healthcare perpetuate inequality. Those who can afford good education and healthcare have better life opportunities, while the disadvantaged get trapped in a cycle of poverty and poor health.
• Geographical Factors: Disparities in development between urban and rural areas, or between different regions, lead to inequalities of opportunity. Regional disparity means that the place a person is born in can significantly determine their life prospects.

Remedies for the Removal of Inequality:

Addressing inequality requires a comprehensive, multi-pronged approach:

• Progressive Taxation: Levying higher taxes on higher incomes and wealth, and using that revenue for social programs, can help redistribute wealth and reduce inequality.
• Social Safety Nets: Universal healthcare, quality public education, and food security programs (like the Public Distribution System) and employment guarantee schemes (like MGNREGA) provide a safety net for the poor.
• Ensuring Equal Opportunity: Implementing affirmative action (reservations) and stringent laws to eliminate discrimination in education, health, and employment is crucial. Empowering women and marginalised communities is particularly essential.
• Strengthening Labour Rights: Ensuring fair minimum wages, giving workers the right to unionise, and protecting workers in the informal sector can reduce income inequality.
• Improving Governance: Institutional reforms to reduce corruption, increase transparency, and ensure that policies are beneficial to all citizens are critical for tackling inequality.

Q2. What are the factors influencing foods security in India ? Describe problems in food security. 0+0

Ans. Food security means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. In India, it remains a significant developmental challenge. Factors Influencing Food Security in India:

• Production and Availability: Agricultural productivity is the foundation of food security. This depends on monsoon dependency , availability of irrigation facilities, use of technology like high-yielding seeds, and inputs like fertilisers. Government policies like the Minimum Support Price (MSP) also incentivise farmers to grow staple food crops.
• Access to Food: It is not enough for food to be available; people must have the ability to acquire it. Poverty and unemployment are major barriers to accessing food. The government’s Public Distribution System (PDS) plays a crucial role in ensuring access by providing grain at subsidised rates.
• Utilisation of Food: This factor refers to the proper biological use of food by the body. It depends on access to clean drinking water , sanitation, healthcare facilities, and nutritional knowledge. Poor sanitation and contaminated water can lead to diseases that reduce the body’s ability to absorb nutrients, even if sufficient food is consumed.
• Stability: The stability dimension of food security refers to the continuity of food supply and access over time. Climate change , natural disasters (like droughts and floods), and market volatility pose significant threats to the stability of food systems.

Problems in Food Security:

• Climate Change and Environmental Degradation: Erratic weather patterns, rising temperatures, and water scarcity directly impact agricultural productivity, leading to crop failures and reduced food supply. Soil degradation and loss of biodiversity also threaten long-term food production.
• Inefficient Supply Chains: Post-harvest losses in India are very high, largely due to inadequate storage facilities, poor transportation networks, and inefficient supply chain management. This means a significant portion of the food produced never reaches the consumer.
• Issues with the Public Distribution System (PDS): While the PDS is crucial, it is plagued by problems such as errors in identifying target beneficiaries , corruption, and poor quality of grains, which limit its impact.
• Nutrition Transition: India is facing a ‘double burden of malnutrition’. On one hand, undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies (hidden hunger) persist, especially among women and children. On the other hand, with urbanisation and changing lifestyles, obesity and related non-communicable diseases (like diabetes) are on the rise.
• Market and Price Volatility: Sudden spikes in food prices affect the poor disproportionately, reducing their ability to purchase food. Price volatility, influenced by global markets, speculation, and domestic policies, is a major concern.

Q3. What do you understand by Urbanization ? Explain the factors affecting urban health care. 8+2

Ans. Urbanisation is a demographic and social process whereby populations shift from rural to urban areas, resulting in the growth and expansion of towns and cities. It is not just a physical movement of people but also involves social, economic, and cultural changes as people adapt to urban ways of life. India is one of the fastest-urbanising countries in the world, presenting both opportunities for development and significant challenges. Factors Affecting Urban Health Care: The urban environment presents both unique opportunities and risks for health. The key factors affecting urban healthcare are:

• Overcrowding and Housing: Rapid and unplanned urbanisation often leads to the growth of slums and informal settlements, which are characterised by extreme overcrowding. These conditions facilitate the rapid spread of infectious diseases like tuberculosis, dengue, and COVID-19.
• Environmental Factors: Urban areas often suffer from high levels of air, water, and noise pollution . Air pollution is a major cause of respiratory illnesses (like asthma) and cardiovascular diseases. Contaminated water can lead to outbreaks of water-borne diseases like cholera and typhoid.
• Lifestyle and Behaviour: Urban lifestyles often involve sedentary behaviour, unhealthy diets (high consumption of processed and fast foods), and high levels of stress. These factors contribute to the rising incidence of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease.
• Inequitable Access to Health Services: There are vast disparities in access to health services within cities. Wealthier neighbourhoods often have world-class private hospitals, while the urban poor, especially those in slums, have to rely on inadequate and overburdened public health facilities or none at all.
• The Dual Disease Burden: Urban areas face a ‘dual burden of disease’. They are still grappling with infectious diseases linked to poverty and poor sanitation, while simultaneously facing a growing epidemic of non-communicable diseases linked to lifestyle.
• Mental Health: The stresses of urban life, including competition, anonymity, and lack of social support, can contribute to rising levels of mental health problems like depression and anxiety.
• Strain on Infrastructure: Rapid population growth puts immense pressure on the urban health infrastructure, including hospitals, clinics, sanitation systems, and waste management, reducing its effectiveness.

Q4. Explain the concept of ‘diet’ in India. Discuss recent food consumption pattern in India. 0+0

Ans. The Concept of ‘Diet’ in India: In India, the concept of ‘diet’ is far more than just the intake of calories and nutrients; it is a deeply socio-cultural construct. It is intricately linked to region, religion, caste, and traditional beliefs about health. Traditionally, the Indian diet is characterised by:

• Regional Diversity: Each region in India has its own distinct cuisine based on locally available ingredients. The north is dominated by wheat-based diets (roti, paratha), the south by rice-based diets (idli, dosa), the east by rice and fish, and the west by millets and pulses.
• Ayurvedic Influence: The traditional system of medicine, Ayurveda , classifies food as ‘hot’ (tamasic/rajasic) and ‘cold’ (sattvic). These properties are believed to affect the body and mind, and diet is often advised to be balanced according to the season and individual health.
• Religious and Cultural Significance: Food is an integral part of festivals, rituals, and religious practices. Some religions (like Jainism) follow strict vegetarian diets, while many Hindus abstain from beef. The practices of fasting and feasting are common and influence dietary patterns.
• Staple Grains and Pulses: Most traditional Indian diets are based on a combination of cereals (rice or wheat) and pulses (lentils, chickpeas), which provides a complete protein. This is accompanied by vegetables, spices, and a small amount of curd or ghee.

Recent Food Consumption Pattern in India:

In recent decades, India has witnessed a significant transformation in food consumption patterns, a phenomenon often termed the

‘nutrition transition’

.

• A Shift Away from Cereals: The per capita consumption of cereals (rice and wheat) has seen a decline, particularly in urban areas. While cereals still form the bedrock of the diet, their relative share is decreasing.
• A Shift Towards High-Value Foods: With rising incomes and urbanisation, there has been a notable increase in the consumption of high-value foods such as fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products, meat, fish, and eggs. This is a positive sign of dietary diversification.
• Rise of Processed and Convenience Foods: One of the most concerning trends is the rapid increase in the consumption of ultra-processed foods , sugary beverages, and ‘fast food’. This is driven by busy urban lifestyles, rising disposable incomes, and aggressive marketing.
• Higher Consumption of Edible Oils and Sugar: The per capita consumption of vegetable oils and sugar has increased dramatically, contributing to the growing epidemic of obesity and non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like diabetes and heart disease.
• The Double Burden of Malnutrition: These changes have resulted in India facing a ‘double burden of malnutrition’. While undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies remain a major problem (especially in rural areas and among the poor), overweight, obesity, and diet-related NCDs are rising rapidly (especially in urban areas and among the middle class).

Q5. Write short notes on any two of the following : 0+0 (a) Features of good governance (b) Importance of biodiversity (c) Sustainable development

Ans. (a) Features of Good Governance Good governance is the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented) in a way that serves the best interests of society. It is not just about government, but also involves civil society and the private sector. According to the United Nations, there are eight major characteristics of good governance:

• Participation: All citizens should have a voice in decision-making, either directly or through legitimate intermediaries. This includes the participation of men and women, marginalised groups, and the vulnerable.
• Rule of Law: Legal frameworks should be fair and enforced impartially, especially the laws on human rights. This requires an independent judiciary and an impartial police force.
• Transparency: Decisions must be taken and enforced in a transparent manner, and those affected by them should have easy access to information. Transparency helps to curb corruption.
• Responsiveness: Institutions and processes must try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.
• Consensus Oriented: Good governance attempts to mediate different interests in society to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interest of the whole community.
• Equity and Inclusiveness: A society’s well-being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not feel excluded. All should have opportunities to improve their lives.
• Effectiveness and Efficiency: Processes and institutions should produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best possible use of resources.
• Accountability: Governmental institutions, the private sector, and civil society organizations must be accountable to the public and to their stakeholders. Who is accountable to whom for what must be clearly defined.

(c) Sustainable Development

Sustainable development is a paradigm of development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This concept was popularised by the 1987

Brundtland Commission Report, “Our Common Future”

. It is founded on the idea that economic development, social equity, and environmental protection are indivisible and must be pursued together.

The three main pillars of sustainable development are:

• Economic Viability: This refers to creating economic systems that are viable and capable of providing progress, but without overexploiting natural resources or causing environmental harm. It focuses on efficiency, innovation, and responsible production.
• Social Equity: This aims to ensure a fair, just, and inclusive society for all people, both in the present and in the future. It includes poverty reduction, access to healthcare and education, gender equality, and respect for human rights.
• Environmental Protection: This pillar emphasizes the importance of protecting and conserving the natural world. It involves combating climate change, maintaining biodiversity, reducing pollution, and managing renewable resources.

In 2015, the United Nations adopted the

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

, which includes

17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

. These goals act as a universal call to action to address global issues such as poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice. The ultimate goal of sustainable development is to achieve a better and more sustainable future for both the planet and its people.

Q6. Is unemployment one of the burning problems of urbanization ? Explain its issues and challenges. 20

Ans. Yes, unemployment is undoubtedly one of the most burning problems of urbanisation, particularly in developing countries like India. While cities act as magnets of economic opportunity, attracting millions from rural areas, the rate of job creation in urban areas often fails to keep pace with the influx of job seekers. This imbalance gives rise to several severe issues and challenges. Issues Associated with Urban Unemployment:

• Expansion of the Informal Sector: When the formal sector fails to provide enough jobs, the majority of migrants are forced to work in the informal or unorganised sector . These jobs are characterised by low wages, poor working conditions, no job security, and an absence of social security benefits (like health insurance or pensions).
• Disguised Unemployment and Underemployment: Many urban workers may not be officially unemployed but are underemployed , meaning they are working far below their capacity or earning very little. For example, an educated youth working as a delivery boy. Disguised unemployment, where more people are engaged in a job than required, is also common.
• Increase in Poverty and Inequality: Unemployment and underemployment are directly linked to urban poverty. It also widens income inequality, creating a stark divide between the ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’, which often manifests geographically in cities as wealthy neighbourhoods and slums.
• Social Problems and Crime: A lack of economic opportunities and a sense of hopelessness can push youth towards crime, drug abuse, and other anti-social activities. High unemployment rates are often correlated with increased crime rates in urban areas.
• Pressure on Urban Services: The unemployed and poor populations often live in slums and informal settlements with limited access to basic services like water, sanitation, and healthcare. This puts additional strain on the existing urban infrastructure.

Challenges:

• Skill Mismatch: Often, rural migrants lack the requisite skills for the jobs that are available in the urban economy. There is a significant gap between the education system and the needs of the industry, leaving many graduates unemployable.
• Slow Pace of Formal Job Creation: Despite investment in manufacturing and service sectors, the creation of formal, good-quality jobs has been inadequate to keep up with the rate of population growth and migration.
• Labour Market Rigidities: Some analysts argue that rigid labour laws discourage firms from hiring workers formally, leading them to prefer contract or temporary work.
• Unplanned Urbanisation: The haphazard and unplanned growth of cities makes it difficult to develop a coherent economic strategy that links job creation with city development. Lack of infrastructure hampers the growth of enterprises.

In conclusion, urban unemployment is not just a lack of jobs; it is a complex problem that fuels poverty, inequality, and social unrest, and poses a major challenge to the sustainability of urban development. Tackling this challenge requires a concerted policy response targeting skill development, promotion of labour-intensive industries, formalisation of the informal sector, and better urban planning.

Q7. What is slum upgrading ? What are the important factors responsible for the slum upgradation ? 8+l2

Ans. Slum upgrading is a process aimed at improving the living standards of residents in slums and informal settlements. In contrast to traditional approaches that often involved demolishing slums and relocating residents elsewhere, slum upgrading is typically in-situ , meaning it makes improvements without displacing the residents from their existing location. This approach acknowledges that slums are not just a housing problem but are complex social and economic systems. Key components of upgrading include:

• Provision of Basic Services: Providing access to basic urban services like clean water, sanitation (toilets), stormwater drainage, garbage collection, and electricity.
• Security of Tenure: Granting residents legal rights to live on their land or in their housing without fear of eviction. This encourages people to invest in their homes and communities.
• Housing Improvement: Providing assistance, often through small loans or grants, for residents to improve the structural quality of their homes.
• Improving Access and Connectivity: Connecting the settlement to the rest of the city by improving roads, footpaths, and access to public transport.
• Social and Economic Development: Establishing health clinics, schools, skill development centres, and supporting local businesses.

Important Factors Responsible for Slum Upgradation:

A successful slum upgrading program depends on several factors:

• Community Participation and Ownership: This is the single most important factor. When residents are actively involved in the planning, design, and implementation processes, the project is more likely to meet their real needs and be successful in the long run. Community ownership ensures maintenance and sustainability.
• Political Will and Government Support: Strong and sustained commitment from government agencies (local, state, and national) is essential. This includes creating supportive policies, removing bureaucratic hurdles, and allocating necessary resources.
• Security of Tenure: As mentioned above, when residents know they will not face eviction, they are more willing to participate in the upgrading process and invest their own time and money. Security of tenure can come in various forms, from ownership rights to long-term leases.
• Integrated and Holistic Approach: Success requires adopting an integrated approach rather than focusing solely on physical infrastructure (like water pipes). It must simultaneously address social and economic aspects such as health, education, livelihoods, and social cohesion.
• Adequate and Sustained Financing: Upgrading projects require significant financial investment. Funds can come from a combination of sources: government, international agencies (like the World Bank), Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and the private sector. Sustainable financing models, such as community contributions or small user fees, are crucial for long-term maintenance.
• Role of NGOs and Civil Society: NGOs often act as crucial intermediaries between the government and the community. They can provide technical expertise, help organize the community, and advocate for residents’ rights.
• Realistic Standards and Affordability: The designs and standards for upgrading must be appropriate to the local context and affordable for the residents. Attempting to impose high-cost, impractical solutions often leads to failure.

Q8. Define migration. Describe two different theories of migration. What are the factors responsible for migration ? 0+0

Ans. Definition of Migration: Migration refers to the movement of people from one geographical location (such as a country, region, or city) to another with the intention of settling, either permanently or temporarily. It is a complex demographic phenomenon that affects individuals, places of origin, and places of destination. Migration can be internal (within the same country, e.g., rural to urban) or international (between countries). Two Different Theories of Migration: 1. Lee’s Push-Pull Theory: Developed by Everett Lee in 1966, this is one of the most widely used models for understanding migration. Lee argues that the decision to migrate is influenced by four sets of factors:

• Factors at Origin: These include ‘push’ factors that encourage people to leave a place, such as unemployment, low wages, political instability, conflict, or natural disasters.
• Factors at Destination: These include ‘pull’ factors that attract people to a new place, such as better employment opportunities, higher wages, political stability, and better education and health facilities.
• Intervening Obstacles: These are the barriers that migrants may face in moving from origin to destination. They can include distance, cost of travel, legal barriers (like visa requirements), and language or cultural differences.
• Personal Factors: Lee emphasized that push-pull factors affect each individual differently, depending on personal factors like their age, gender, education, and propensity for risk-taking.

2. Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration:

In the 1880s, Ernst Georg Ravenstein analyzed census data in the United Kingdom and developed several generalizations about migration patterns, often called ‘laws’:

• Most migrants move only a short distance.
• Migration occurs in a step-by-step process (step migration). For example, a person might move from a village to a small town, then to a larger city.
• Migrants who move long distances generally go to major centers of commerce and industry.
• Every migration flow generates a counter-flow (though often smaller).
• Natives of towns are less migratory than those of rural areas.
• Females are more migratory than males within their country of birth, while males are more migratory over long distances (this historical observation is not always true today).
• The main cause of migration is economic.

Factors Responsible for Migration:

The reasons for migration can be broadly classified into the following categories:

• Economic Factors: This is the most common and powerful driver of migration. It includes the search for better job opportunities, higher wages, career prospects, and a better standard of living. Rural-to-urban migration is primarily driven by this factor.
• Social Factors: People may migrate for better education facilities, healthcare services, or to be closer to family and friends. Marriage is also a significant social reason for migration, especially for women in India.
• Political Factors: Political instability, war, conflict, persecution (religious, ethnic, or political), and violation of human rights force people to flee their homelands. Such people are often called refugees or asylum seekers.
• Environmental Factors: Natural disasters like floods, droughts, earthquakes, and cyclones can displace people temporarily or permanently. Climate change, leading to sea-level rise and desertification, is expected to be a major environmental ‘push’ factor in the future, known as ‘climate migration’ .