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IGNOU MHI-110 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. What is urban history ? Discuss the importance of comparative method for the study of urbanisation.

Ans. Urban history is a sub-discipline of history that focuses on the historical evolution of cities and towns, and the process of urbanization. It is not merely the study of the city as a location, but rather examines the city as a process, a social construct, an economic engine, and a cultural hub. Urban historians analyse the rise and fall of cities, their physical form, demography, socio-economic structures, political roles, and cultural life. The discipline concentrates on themes such as:

• The growth, expansion, and decline of cities.
• Social organization within the city, including the roles of class, caste, gender, and ethnicity.
• The urban economy, including trade, craft production, and labour markets.
• The role of the city as a centre of political power.
• The development of urban planning, architecture, and infrastructure.
• The relationship between the city and its hinterland.

V. Gordon Childe’s concept of the ‘Urban Revolution’, in which he laid out ten criteria to define a city (e.g., population density, specialization, surplus accumulation), is a foundational idea in the study of urban history.

Importance of the Comparative Method for the Study of Urbanisation:

The comparative method involves comparing two or more cities or processes of urbanization across different regions or time periods. This method is crucial in the study of urban history for several reasons:

1. Identifying General Patterns vs. Specific Trajectories: Comparative study helps us distinguish which features of urbanization are universal (like population density, occupational specialization) and which are culturally or geographically specific. For instance, comparing Harappan cities with Mesopotamian cities reveals the unique characteristics of South Asian urbanism, such as the standardized grid plan.
2. Testing Hypotheses: Theories about urban growth (e.g., whether it was driven by trade, religion, or state power) can be tested by comparing cases where these factors vary. For example, comparing the growth of a political capital like Pataliputra with a trading port like Tamralipti helps in understanding different drivers of urban development.
3. Avoiding Ethnocentrism: This method prevents the universal application of models based on one region (e.g., the European industrial city). By comparing Indian cities with those of other civilizations, we appreciate the diversity of urban forms and avoid a Eurocentric perspective.
4. Enhancing Understanding of Causality: By comparing a city that grew with one that declined, we can better isolate the causal factors responsible for growth or decline, such as shifts in trade routes, loss of political patronage, or environmental changes.
5. Cross-Cultural Insights: The comparison of urban layouts, social organization, and cultural life across different cities provides deep insights into the societies that built them. It helps us understand how different cultures responded to the challenges and opportunities of urban living.

In essence, the comparative method provides a broader, more analytical, and global perspective to the study of urban history, enabling us to move beyond single case studies and develop a deeper, more nuanced understanding of the process of urbanization.

Q2. What are new methodologies used by archaeologists to study cities in Harappa ?

Ans. To study the cities of the Harappan civilization, archaeologists have moved beyond traditional excavation methods to adopt several new and advanced methodologies. These methods are less destructive and provide more detailed information about various aspects of Harappan urban life, such as the economy, environment, and social dynamics. The key new methodologies are as follows: 1. Remote Sensing and Geophysical Surveys:

• Satellite Imagery: Images from satellites like CORONA and Landsat are used to identify potential archaeological sites, map large-scale features like ancient river courses (e.g., the Ghaggar-Hakra), irrigation systems, and settlement patterns without excavation. This provides a broad regional perspective.
• Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR), Magnetometry, and Resistivity Surveys: These non-invasive techniques allow archaeologists to “see” beneath the ground, mapping buried structures, streets, kilns, and other features. This helps in planning targeted excavations, saving time and resources, and preventing unnecessary destruction of the site. These techniques have been used successfully at sites like Rakhigarhi and Dholavira.

2. Geographic Information Systems (GIS):

• GIS is a powerful tool that integrates and analyses various spatial data (such as topography, site locations, artefact distribution, environmental data).
• It is used to understand settlement patterns, analyse their relationship with resources (like water, raw materials), and model trade routes. GIS helps in understanding the complex relationships between Harappan cities and their hinterlands.

3. Archaeobotany and Zooarchaeology:

• Flotation: This is a technique used to recover tiny plant remains (like seeds, charcoal) from soil samples. This helps in reconstructing ancient diet, agricultural practices, and the environment.
• Palynology (Pollen Analysis): By studying pollen grains preserved in layers of soil, archaeologists can reconstruct past vegetation and climate change.
• Faunal Analysis: The study of animal bones provides information about diet, animal husbandry practices (e.g., which animals were domesticated), and the use of animals for traction or other products.

4. Material Science and Chemical Analysis:

• Petrographic Analysis: Studying the mineral composition of pottery helps identify clay sources, which in turn reveals production centres and trade networks.
• Trace Element Analysis (e.g., XRF, NAA): This helps in determining the origin (provenance) of metals, stones, and ceramics by analysing their chemical composition. This is crucial for understanding Harappan trade networks, such as the import of lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and copper from Oman/Khetri.
• Isotope Analysis (Strontium, Oxygen): Analysis of strontium and oxygen isotopes in human and animal teeth and bones is used to study migration patterns and mobility of people.

These innovative methodologies have revolutionized the study of the Harappan civilization. They enable us to understand Harappan cities not just as architectural marvels but as complex, dynamic systems, intimately connected with their environment and the wider world.

Q3. List the craft indicators excavated at Mohenjodaro. What patterns emerge out of these indicators ?

Ans. Mohenjodaro, one of the most prominent urban centres of the Indus Valley Civilization, is renowned for its advanced craft production. The various craft indicators unearthed during excavations paint a picture of a complex and organized economy. List of Craft Indicators Excavated at Mohenjodaro:

1. Pottery: Mass-produced, standardized vessels, including ‘dish-on-stand’, perforated jars, and goblets. Remains of pottery kilns have also been found.
2. Bead-Making:
   • Materials: Micro-beads made of steatite, long barrel beads of carnelian, agate, jasper, lapis lazuli, shell, and faience.
   • Tools: Stone drills, drill bits, and polishing stones.
   • Evidence: Unfinished beads, raw materials, wasters (materials discarded during production), and evidence of workshops.
3. Metallurgy:
   • Metals: Copper, bronze, gold, and silver.
   • Artefacts: Tools (axes, saws, chisels), weapons (spearheads), vessels, ornaments (bangles), and figurines (e.g., the bronze ‘Dancing Girl’).
   • Production Evidence: Crucibles for melting metal, slag, furnaces, and stone moulds.
4. Shell Working:
   • Artefacts: Bangles, ladles, and inlays.
   • Evidence: Large quantities of sawn shell fragments and other manufacturing debris, found concentrated in specific areas.
5. Seal-Making:
   • Material: Mostly steatite.
   • Process: Cutting, shaping, carving with script and animal motifs, and then firing to harden it.
   • Evidence: Unfinished seals and tools used for making them.
6. Textile Production:
   • Indirect Evidence: Spindle whorls made of terracotta and faience used for spinning yarn. Impressions of woven cloth on pottery and other objects. The trefoil-patterned shawl on the ‘Priest-King’ statue.
7. Brick-Making: Mass production of standardized (ratio 1:2:4) baked bricks, for which large kilns existed.

Patterns Emerging from These Indicators:

• High Degree of Standardization: The uniformity in bricks, pottery, seals, and weights suggests a strong, centralized authority or widely accepted craft traditions.
• Specialized Craftsmanship: The complexity of items like long carnelian beads, micro-beads, and bronze casting indicates that artisans were highly skilled and were full-time specialists.
• Spatial Organization of Craft: Evidence of craft activity is concentrated in specific areas or workshops within the city, suggesting a certain level of zoning or organization of production.
• Extensive Trade Networks: The presence of raw materials not locally available (e.g., lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, shell from the coast, copper from Rajasthan/Oman) points to a well-organized long-distance trade network to supply the artisans.
• Production for Elite and Common Use: The wide range of products, from utilitarian pottery and tools to luxury goods like faience ornaments and gold jewellery, suggests a stratified society with different levels of consumption.
• Technological Sophistication: Techniques like ‘lost-wax’ casting for bronze, faience production, and the complex drilling of hard stones demonstrate a high level of technological achievement.

Q4. Discuss the chief characteristics of early historic urban centres between 500 BCE and 500 CE in the Ganga Valley.

Ans. The period between 500 BCE and 500 CE is known as the era of ‘Second Urbanisation’ in Indian history. During this time, numerous significant urban centres emerged and flourished in the Ganga Valley. The chief characteristics of these centres were as follows: 1. Rise and Consolidation of States: Most cities of this period were political and administrative centres of the Mahajanapadas and later empires like the Mauryas and Guptas. The growth of capitals like Kausambi, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaishali, and especially Pataliputra was directly linked to state patronage. The state provided security and fostered their growth as centres of administration. 2. Fortifications: A key feature of these urban centres was their massive fortifications. Due to political instability and warfare, most cities were enclosed by huge ramparts and moats made of earth, brick, and sometimes stone. The fortifications of Kausambi and Rajagriha are excellent examples. These fortifications not only provided security but also symbolized the power and prestige of the city. 3. Economic Base:

• Trade and Commerce: These cities were located on major trade routes and were important centres of commerce. The circulation of coinage, such as Punch-Marked Coins and later Kushan coins, facilitated trade. Guilds of merchants and artisans, known as shrenis , played a significant role in the urban economy.
• Craft Production: Specialized crafts flourished in these cities. Industries such as the production of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), textiles, metalwork, ivory carving, and bead-making were prominent.
• Agricultural Surplus: The existence of cities depended on the agricultural surplus from the fertile Gangetic plains. The state played a crucial role in channelling this surplus to the cities through taxation.

4. Social Structure and Religious Life:

• Social Heterogeneity and Stratification: The cities were home to a diverse population including rulers, officials, priests, merchants ( setthis ), artisans, and labourers. This is reflected in the different types of housing and material possessions found in archaeological excavations.
• Centre of New Religious Movements: The cities were crucibles of new ideas. Buddhism and Jainism found strong support among the urban merchant and artisan classes. The construction of stupas, viharas, and monasteries in or near cities (e.g., Sarnath near Varanasi) is evidence of this.

5. Urban Planning and Infrastructure:

Unlike Harappan cities, many early historic cities show a more organic or less rigid plan. However, some evidence of planning exists, as in Pataliputra described by Megasthenes. The use of burnt bricks, ring wells (a distinctive feature for sanitation/drainage), drains, and some paved streets were part of the urban infrastructure of this period.

6. Material Culture:

The period is identified by distinctive pottery like the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The abundance of terracotta figurines, beads of precious stones, and iron objects were also characteristic of these urban centres.

In conclusion, the early historic urban centres of the Ganga Valley were dynamic hubs of political power, trade, craft production, and new religious ideas, playing a vital role in the development of Indian civilization.

Q5. What was the nature and pattern of the urban settlements represented in the ancient classical texts ?

Ans. Ancient Indian classical texts, including Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, and Greco-Roman literature, provide valuable information on the nature and pattern of urban settlements in ancient India. These texts give us insights into the conception, organization, and functioning of urban life, complementing the archaeological evidence. Key Texts and the Patterns Described:

1. Buddhist and Jaina Texts:
   • Pali Canon: Buddhist texts, especially the Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka , mention six great cities ( mahanagara ) of the Buddha’s time – Rajagaha, Savatthi, Kosambi, Vesali, Champa, and Varanasi. These texts describe them as bustling commercial hubs, densely populated, and inhabited by various social classes like kings, setthis (wealthy merchants), artisans, and monks. They also describe city gates, markets ( apana ), and viharas.
2. Kautilya’s Arthashastra:
   • This is a prescriptive treatise on statecraft, which includes a detailed plan for an ideal capital city ( durga ). Kautilya recommends a fortified city with a grid-pattern of streets, distinct zones (zoning) for different varnas and occupations, and a well-organized administrative structure. It also details the role of the Nagaraka (city superintendent), who regulated law and order, sanitation, and trade. It presents a theoretical model of what a city should be.
3. Epics and Puranas:
   • Epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata describe grand and often idealized capitals like Ayodhya, Hastinapura, and Indraprastha. These descriptions present an image of prosperous cities with wide streets, lofty palaces, beautiful gardens, and strong fortifications, reflecting the urban aspirations of the time.
4. Silpasastras/Vastusastras:
   • Treatises like the Manasara are technical texts on architecture that provide various types of ideal layouts (e.g., prastara , nandyavarta ) for cities, forts, and buildings. These texts emphasize the importance of organizing urban space according to cosmic principles.
5. Greco-Roman Texts:
   • Megasthenes’ Indica : This provides an eyewitness account of Pataliputra during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. Megasthenes described Pataliputra as a massive, parallelogram-shaped city, surrounded by a huge timber palisade with 570 towers and 64 gates, and a deep moat. He also described a sophisticated municipal administration.
   • Periplus of the Erythraean Sea : This mariner’s guide describes numerous port towns ( emporia ) on the western and eastern coasts of India, such as Barygaza (Bharuch), Muziris, and Arikamedu. It highlights the commercial importance of these cities and the goods they exported and imported.

Nature and Pattern:

The following nature and pattern of urban settlements emerge from the texts:

• Classification: The texts classify settlements, such as grama (village), nigama (market town), nagara (city), mahanagara (great city), and pattana (port town).
• Key Features: Fortifications (walls, moats, gates), a central palace or administrative area, bustling markets, artisans’ quarters, and religious establishments (temples, viharas) are common to almost all urban descriptions.
• Ideal vs. Real: Texts like the Arthashastra and Silpasastras present idealistic plans, whereas the Pali texts and the Periplus provide more realistic, descriptive accounts.

In conclusion, the ancient classical texts, though sometimes idealistic and exaggerated, offer invaluable insights into the conception, function, and social fabric of ancient Indian cities, highlighting the crucial role of political power, trade, and social hierarchy in shaping the urban landscape.

Q6. Give a brief account of the excavations in Taxila Valley.

Ans. Taxila (located in modern Pakistan) was a major ancient city, a renowned centre of learning, and a crossroads of cultures (Indian, Persian, Greek, Central Asian). The excavations in the Taxila Valley have revealed the long and diverse history of the city spanning nearly a thousand years. Key Excavators:

• Alexander Cunningham: He first identified the ruins as Taxila in the 1860s-70s.
• Sir John Marshall: He conducted extensive and systematic excavations from 1913 to 1934. His work is considered foundational for the study of Taxila.

Three Successive City Sites:

Marshall’s excavations uncovered three distinct and successive city sites, reflecting the different historical phases of the city:

1. Bhir Mound:
   • Period: c. 6th-2nd century BCE (Achaemenid and Mauryan periods).
   • Layout: This is the earliest city, with an irregular and haphazard street plan. The houses were made of rubble masonry.
   • Significance: It is associated with the Mauryan empire. A large hoard of Achaemenid and Mauryan coins was found here. It represents the city’s early phase.
2. Sirkap:
   • Period: c. 2nd century BCE – 1st century CE (Indo-Greek and Saka-Pahlava periods).
   • Layout: This was a planned, fortified city built on a grid pattern, strongly influenced by Hellenistic town planning. It had a main street flanked by shops and houses, a royal palace area, and a stupa (the “Shrine of the Double-Headed Eagle”).
   • Significance: It clearly shows the influence of Greek invaders on urban design. It was a cosmopolitan city with a mix of Indian, Greek, and Central Asian cultural elements.
3. Sirsukh:
   • Period: c. 1st century CE – 5th century CE (Kushan period).
   • Layout: A fortified city with a rectangular plan, characteristic of Central Asian military encampments. Its walls have bastions for archers. Much of this site is still unexcavated.
   • Significance: It represents the capital during the Kushan period.

Other Important Sites in the Valley:

• Dharmarajika Stupa: A massive stupa complex, traditionally initiated by Ashoka and later enlarged. It was a major Buddhist monastic centre.
• Jandial Temple: A temple with a plan resembling a classical Greek temple with Ionic columns, but with a solid tower (like a ziggurat) inside. Its religious affiliation (Zoroastrian? Greek?) is debated.
• Mohra Moradu and Jaulian: These are well-preserved Buddhist monastic complexes with stupas, viharas, and assembly halls. They are famous for their stucco sculptures depicting scenes from the Buddha’s life.

Conclusion:

The excavations at Taxila provide a unique chronological sequence of urban development over a thousand years. They vividly illustrate the city’s role as a melting pot of diverse cultures and its importance as a political and religious centre.

Q7. How does Patliputra figure in the ancient literary texts ? Give examples.

Ans. Pataliputra (modern Patna), situated at the confluence of the Ganga, Son, and Gandak rivers, was one of the most important cities of ancient India. It served as the capital of major empires like the Magadha, Nanda, Maurya, and Gupta. Its fame and significance are reflected in numerous Indian, Greek, and Chinese literary texts. 1. Buddhist Texts (Pali Canon): Buddhist texts describe Pataliputra’s origin as a small village named Pataligrama. It is said that the Buddha visited it shortly before his death and prophesied its future greatness as a chief city, but also warned of its destruction by fire, water, and internal strife. This prophecy highlights both its strategic importance and its vulnerabilities. The Third Buddhist Council was held here under the patronage of Ashoka. 2. Jaina Texts: Jaina texts also mention the city, sometimes called Kusumpura (“city of flowers”). According to Jaina tradition, the council that compiled their scriptures (Agamas) under Sthulabhadra was held in Pataliputra. 3. Sanskrit Texts:

• Kautilya’s Arthashastra: Although a theoretical treatise, it is traditionally associated with the Mauryan court at Pataliputra. Its detailed prescriptions for a capital city—fortifications, administration, zoning, espionage—are often seen as an idealized model of Pataliputra’s governance.
• Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa: This play (post-Gupta period) is set in Pataliputra and dramatizes Chanakya’s political machinations to install Chandragupta Maurya on the throne.
• Puranas: The Puranas list Pataliputra as the capital of the Nanda, Maurya, and Gupta dynasties.

4. Greco-Roman Accounts:

• Megasthenes’ Indica : This is the most famous and detailed description of Pataliputra. Megasthenes called it “Palibothra”. He described it as a massive parallelogram-shaped city, surrounded by a huge timber palisade with 570 towers and 64 gates, and a deep moat. He also described a sophisticated municipal commission responsible for the city’s administration. He claimed the royal palace was grander than the Persian palaces of Susa and Ecbatana.

5. Chinese Travellers’ Accounts:

• Faxian (Fa-Hien): He visited Pataliputra in the early 5th century CE during the Gupta period. He was greatly impressed by the city’s prosperity, the magnificent royal palace (which he believed was built by spirits, not men), and the flourishing Buddhist monasteries.
• Xuanzang (Hsuan-Tsang): When he arrived in the 7th century CE, he found the old city largely in ruins and deserted. His account marks the decline of Pataliputra.

In conclusion, literary texts from diverse sources collectively portray Pataliputra as a grand, long-lived, and well-governed imperial capital. They highlight its strategic location, massive scale, sophisticated administration, and eventual decline, providing a narrative framework for the archaeological findings.

Q8. Critically examine the characteristics of early historic urban centers in Deccan.

Ans. During the Early Historic period (c. 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE), several urban centres emerged in the Deccan plateau (Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka), flourishing mainly under dynasties like the Satavahanas and Ikshvakus. A critical examination of their characteristics is as follows: Chief Characteristics:

1. Drivers of Urbanization:
   • Trade: This was a primary driver of urbanization in the Deccan. The region was a crucial link connecting the Gangetic valley with the southern ports. In particular, trade with the Roman Empire brought immense wealth to the region. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions many trading towns like Paithan (Pratishthana), Ter, and Kolhapur.
   • Religion: Buddhism was a major force. Large monastic complexes (stupas and viharas) were established with donations from merchants, artisans, and royal women. These complexes acted as economic magnets, attracting pilgrims and stimulating craft production and commerce. Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda are prime examples.
   • Political Patronage: The Satavahanas and Ikshvakus established capitals and administrative centres like Pratishthana and Nagarjunakonda. However, unlike in the Ganga Valley, the state’s role was perhaps less direct, and many urban centres seem to have thrived primarily on trade.
2. Urban Morphology and Infrastructure:
   • Fortifications: Some sites (e.g., Satanikota, Dhulikatta) were fortified with mud or brick ramparts and moats, but this was not as universal or massive as in the cities of the Ganga Valley.
   • Building Materials: The use of burnt bricks was common, but rubble and mud-brick were also extensively used. Tiled roofs were a characteristic feature.
   • Structures: Excavations have revealed residential structures, workshops, marketplaces, and impressive religious architecture (stupas, viharas, chaitya-grihas). At Nagarjunakonda, a planned citadel area has been found, with a palace, barracks, and even a Roman-style amphitheatre.
3. Economic Life:
   • Crafts: Specialized crafts included bead-making from precious stones, pottery like Rouletted Ware (indicating Roman contact), textile production, and metalwork.
   • Coinage: Widespread use of Satavahana coinage (lead, copper, potin) and the presence of Roman coins testify to a monetized economy.
   • Guilds ( shrenis/nigamas ): Inscriptions frequently mention donations by guilds of weavers, potters, oil-pressers, etc., indicating their corporate identity and economic strength.

Critical Examination:

• “Urban” or “Proto-Urban”?: Some scholars question the scale and complexity of some Deccani sites compared to their northern counterparts. Were they full-fledged cities like those in the Ganga Valley, or large market towns that grew around religious establishments? The term “urban” must be applied with nuance.
• Role of Roman Trade: While undeniably important, some scholars argue that internal trade networks and local demand were equally significant, and Roman trade merely accelerated an existing process. The decline of many of these centres coincides with the decline of Roman trade after the 3rd century CE, suggesting a strong linkage, but it may not have been the sole cause.
• Nature of Planning: With exceptions like the citadel at Nagarjunakonda, many sites appear to have grown organically around trade routes or religious foci, rather than according to a rigid plan.

Conclusion:

Early historic urbanism in the Deccan was distinct from the Ganga Valley model. It was less state-driven and more heavily influenced by long-distance trade (especially Roman trade) and religious institutions (especially Buddhism). These centres were vibrant nodes of economic and cultural exchange, but their prosperity was often tied to the fortunes of these external factors.

Q9. How do epigraphs and literary texts help in the construction of patterns of urbanization in the early medieval period ?

Ans. The early medieval period (c. 600-1300 CE) is often associated with the theory of “urban decay” proposed by historian R.S. Sharma. However, recent scholarship has challenged this notion, highlighting a process of “third urbanization”. Epigraphs and literary texts are crucial in this debate and for constructing the new patterns of urbanization. Role of Literary Texts:

1. Accounts of Foreign Travellers: The accounts of foreign travellers like Xuanzang (7th century) and Al-Biruni (11th century) are invaluable. Xuanzang noted the decline of old cities like Pataliputra but also described the prosperity of new centres like Kannauj and Prayaga. Arab geographers described bustling port towns on the west coast. These accounts provide evidence of both urban shift and continuity.
2. Royal Biographies (Charitas): Banabhatta’s Harshacharita provides a vivid description of capitals like Sthanvishvara and Kannauj, detailing their markets, populace, and courtly life. These texts reflect the importance and grandeur of political centres.
3. Puranas and Regional Chronicles: Texts like the Skanda Purana contain mahatmya sections that glorify specific pilgrimage sites ( tirthas ). These tirthas attracted pilgrims and royal patronage, gradually developing into significant urban centres. This shows the process of urbanization of religious centres.

Role of Epigraphs (Inscriptions and Copper-Plates):

Epigraphs, particularly land grant charters (copper-plates) and stone inscriptions recording donations to temples, provide the most concrete evidence for understanding urban patterns of this period.

1. Identifying Urban Centres: Inscriptions mention various types of settlements, such as pura (city), nagara (town), pattana (port), and mandapika (market/customs house). The frequency of these terms in a region can indicate urban density.
2. Revealing Urban Economy: They record taxes and cesses collected at markets ( hatta ) and custom posts ( mandapika ), providing direct evidence of commercial activity. They mention merchants, merchant guilds (like the Ayyavole 500, Manigramam), and artisans, highlighting their role in the urban economy.
3. Tracing the Rise of New Centres: Land grants often describe the transformation of a village ( grama ) into a market centre ( hatta ) or the development of a temple-centric town. This demonstrates the process of “urbanization from below,” where local initiative and trade spurred urban growth.
4. Understanding Urban Administration: Inscriptions from South India mention town committees like the Taniyur and officials responsible for town administration, indicating a degree of local autonomy.

Emerging Patterns:

From these sources, a complex pattern of urbanization emerges:

• Shift in Locus: A decline of the older, large political capitals of the early historic period and the rise of new, often smaller, regional capitals, temple-towns, and market centres.
• New Types of Urban Centres: Political/administrative centres ( skandhavaras ), commercial centres ( mandapikas/hattas ), and religious centres ( tirthas/temple-towns ) were characteristic of this period.

In conclusion, epigraphs and literary texts challenge the simplistic theory of urban decay and reveal a more diverse and dynamic pattern of urbanization in the early medieval period, driven by regional state formation, commerce, and religious devotionalism.

Q10. Write short notes on any two of the following in about 250 words each : (a) Nagarjunakonda (b) Amaravati (c) Port towns (d) Kannauj

Ans. (a) Nagarjunakonda Nagarjunakonda is a significant archaeological site located in a valley on the Krishna River in Andhra Pradesh. It was the capital of the Ikshvaku dynasty (c. 3rd-4th century CE) after the Satavahanas, and its ancient name was Vijayapuri. The valley was submerged by the construction of the Nagarjuna Sagar dam, but the major monuments were relocated to a museum on a hill-island. Extensive excavations at the site revealed a well-planned city. The city was divided into a citadel area, which contained a palace complex, barracks, stables, and a unique structure identified as a Roman-style amphitheatre, suggesting cosmopolitan influences. The site was a major centre of Buddhism, with numerous stupas, viharas (monasteries), and chaityas belonging to various Buddhist sects. The royal women of the Ikshvaku dynasty were the main patrons of these Buddhist establishments. Alongside these, evidence of reviving Brahmanism was also found in the form of several temples dedicated to gods like Shiva (Pushpabhadraswami) and Kartikeya. The art of Nagarjunakonda is considered a developed phase of the Amaravati school. The site is an excellent example of an early historic dynastic capital in the Deccan, showcasing the co-existence and patronage of both Buddhism and Brahmanical religions, a sophisticated level of planning, and influences from long-distance trade. (d) Kannauj Kannauj is a historical city situated on the banks of the Ganga in Uttar Pradesh, known in ancient times as Kanyakubja. It rose to prominence in the post-Gupta period, becoming the grand imperial capital under Emperor Harsha of the Pushyabhuti dynasty in the early 7th century CE. The prosperity and grandeur of Kannauj are vividly described in Banabhatta’s ‘Harshacharita’ and the accounts of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang. Xuanzang described it as a large, well-defended, and prosperous city with hundreds of Buddhist monasteries and Brahmanical temples. After Harsha, Kannauj’s strategic location and its symbolic value as the premier imperial city of North India made it the coveted prize for three major powers: the Gurjara-Pratiharas of the west, the Palas of the east, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The long-drawn conflict among these three for the control of Kannauj (c. 8th-9th centuries) is famously known as the “Tripartite Struggle”. It later served as the capital of the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Gahadavalas. Its decline was hastened by the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni and later by the forces of the Delhi Sultanate. Kannauj represents a key urban centre of the Early Medieval period, whose history encapsulates the shift of political power from older centres like Pataliputra and its status as a symbol of imperial sovereignty.