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IGNOU MPA-034 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. Describe the concept of hazard and bring out its different categories and types.

Ans. The concept of hazard is fundamental to disaster management. A hazard is a potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon, or human activity that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, social and economic disruption, or environmental degradation. It is important to note that a hazard is not a disaster in itself; it is a situation with the potential to turn into a disaster. A disaster occurs when a hazard strikes a vulnerable population that has insufficient capacity to cope. Hazards can be classified into different categories and types based on their origin: 1. Natural Hazards: These are caused by natural processes or phenomena. They can be further sub-divided into:

• Geophysical: Originating from processes within the solid earth. Examples: Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, landslides.
• Hydrological: Related to the deviation in the movement, distribution, and quality of water. Examples: Floods, droughts.
• Meteorological: Related to short-lived atmospheric processes. Examples: Cyclones, storms, tornadoes, extreme temperatures.
• Climatological: Related to long-term atmospheric processes. Examples: Sea-level rise, melting of glaciers, desertification.
• Biological: Caused by biological substances or processes. Examples: Epidemics (like COVID-19), pest infestations (like locust swarms), animal diseases.

2. Anthropogenic/Man-made Hazards:

These are caused by human activities, errors, or system failures. They can be classified as:

• Technological: Originating from failures of industrial processes, technologies, or transport systems. Examples: Industrial accidents (like the Bhopal Gas Tragedy), oil spills, nuclear radiation, transport accidents.
• Socio-natural: These are hazards that are triggered or exacerbated by the interaction of natural events and human activities. Examples: Increased frequency of landslides due to deforestation, increased flooding due to urbanization.
• Social/Political: Caused by social or political factors. Examples: Conflict, terrorism, civil unrest.

Understanding these categories and types of hazards is crucial as it forms the basis for risk assessment and the development of effective disaster risk reduction strategies. Each type of hazard requires specific monitoring, warning systems, and mitigation measures.

Q2. Explain the meaning and components of risk assessment process.

Ans. Risk assessment is a systematic process used to determine the potential losses and their likelihood of occurrence due to a particular hazard. It is a critical part of disaster risk management that helps us understand how hazards, vulnerabilities, and capacities interact to create risk. Its main purpose is to identify, analyze, and evaluate risks to set priorities and strategies for risk reduction. The risk assessment process generally involves the following key components: 1. Hazard Identification and Analysis: This is the first step of the process. It involves identifying the potential natural and man-made hazards that could affect a particular area. Following identification, each hazard is analyzed in terms of its frequency (how often it occurs), intensity (how powerful it can be), and spatial extent (which areas are likely to be affected). This is done using historical data, scientific modeling, and expert opinion. 2. Vulnerability Assessment: This step determines which elements of a community, system, or asset are susceptible to a particular hazard and the extent to which they may be affected. Different dimensions of vulnerability are assessed, such as:

• Physical Vulnerability: The weakness of buildings and infrastructure.
• Social Vulnerability: Factors like age, gender, health, and social inequality.
• Economic Vulnerability: Loss of livelihood, lack of financial resources.
• Environmental Vulnerability: Fragility of the ecosystem.

3. Capacity Assessment:

Capacity assessment evaluates the strengths, resources, and coping strategies available within a community or society. It is the flip side of vulnerability. It looks at how well-equipped people and institutions are to face, respond to, and recover from adverse events. This includes institutional strength, early warning systems, community awareness, emergency response teams, and financial resources.

4. Risk Evaluation:

This is the final step where the information from the previous three steps is synthesized. In this phase, the level of risk is determined based on the analysis of hazard, vulnerability, and capacity. Risk is often expressed as a function:

Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability / Capacity

. The results of the risk evaluation help decide which risks are acceptable, which are unacceptable, and which require immediate action for mitigation. It enables decision-makers to prioritize resources and select the most effective risk reduction measures.

Q3. Write a note on Climate Risks.

Ans. Climate risk refers to the likelihood of adverse outcomes resulting from the impacts of climate change. It is not just about climate-related hazards, but is a consequence of how these hazards interact with vulnerable social, economic, and environmental systems. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate risk is a function of three main components: Hazard , Exposure , and Vulnerability . 1. Hazard: These are the physical events associated with climate change. They include:

• Acute events: Such as more intense cyclones, heatwaves, extreme rainfall events, and floods.
• Chronic changes: Such as sea-level rise, increase in average temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and desertification.

2. Exposure:

This refers to the presence of people, livelihoods, infrastructure, and ecosystems in places that could be affected by climate hazards. For example, communities living in coastal areas are more exposed to sea-level rise and cyclones.

3. Vulnerability:

This is the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected by climate hazards. It is influenced by socio-economic factors like poverty, inequality, lack of access to healthcare, and weak governance. For example, a poor farmer dependent on rain-fed agriculture is highly vulnerable to drought.

Climate risks can be broadly divided into two categories:

Physical Risks:

These arise directly from the physical impacts of climate change. For example, destruction of property from floods, crop failure from drought, and health issues from heatwaves. These risks can severely impact sectors like agriculture, insurance, tourism, and infrastructure.

Transition Risks:

These are risks associated with the transition to a low-carbon economy. They may include policy changes (e.g., carbon taxes), technological shifts (e.g., the rise of renewables), and changes in market and consumer preferences. For instance, companies reliant on fossil fuels may face financial losses as the world shifts towards cleaner energy sources.

In conclusion, climate risk is a complex and multi-faceted issue that requires a holistic approach. Effectively managing these risks requires urgent and concerted action for both reducing greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation) and adapting to the impacts of climate change (adaptation).

Q4. Examine the ways of climate change adaptation.

Ans. Climate change adaptation refers to the adjustments that natural or human systems make in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects. Its main objective is to moderate the harmful effects of climate change and to take advantage of any opportunities it may generate. While mitigation addresses the causes of climate change, adaptation focuses on dealing with its unavoidable impacts. The ways of adaptation can be classified into different categories: 1. Structural and Physical Adaptation: This involves building or modifying physical structures using technology and engineering solutions.

• Water Management: Building rainwater harvesting systems, modernizing dams and reservoirs, and adopting efficient irrigation techniques (like drip irrigation).
• Coastal Protection: Constructing sea walls, embankments, and natural barriers like mangrove plantations to protect against sea-level rise and storm surges.
• Infrastructure: Designing roads, bridges, and buildings to be more resilient to withstand extreme weather events like floods and high winds. This involves “climate-proofing” infrastructure.

2. Institutional Adaptation:

This involves policies, laws, and institutional arrangements that support adaptation efforts.

• Policies and Planning: Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into national and local development plans. Creating National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) and State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs).
• Legal Framework: Modifying building codes, land-use planning to prevent development in high-risk zones, and regulating water rights.
• Institutional Strengthening: Building the capacity of government departments or agencies dedicated to tackling climate change and improving coordination between different sectors.

3. Social Adaptation:

This involves changes in people’s livelihoods and behaviors.

• Livelihood Diversification: Encouraging farmers to engage in non-farm activities to reduce their dependence on climate variability.
• Education and Awareness: Spreading public awareness about the risks of climate change and adaptation options.
• Healthcare: Strengthening public health systems for monitoring and controlling climate-sensitive diseases (e.g., malaria, dengue) and setting up early warning systems for heatwaves.

4. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA):

This approach uses biodiversity and ecosystem services to help people adapt to climate change. It is often cost-effective and has multiple co-benefits. Examples include: conserving and restoring wetlands and forests to regulate floods and improve water quality, and conserving mangroves for coastal protection.

In conclusion, there is no one-size-fits-all solution. Effective adaptation often requires a combination of these different approaches, tailored to the local context, vulnerabilities, and available resources.

Q5. Write short notes on the following in about 200 words each : 5+5 (a) Post-disaster needs assessment (b) Concept of disaster risk reduction

Ans. (a) Post-disaster needs assessment A Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA) is a structured and coordinated approach to evaluate the impacts of a major disaster and to determine the resources required for recovery and reconstruction. It is not just a physical appraisal of damage, but a comprehensive analysis of the social, economic, and human consequences of the disaster. The primary objective of a PDNA is to help the government of the affected country develop a coordinated recovery strategy. It performs the following key functions:

• Assesses Damage and Loss: It provides a quantitative estimate of the physical assets destroyed (damage) and the disrupted economic flows (loss).
• Evaluates Human Impact: It assesses the disaster’s impact on livelihoods, health, education, and social well-being.
• Identifies Recovery Needs: It determines the financial, technical, and institutional requirements for short-term and long-term recovery across various sectors (e.g., housing, infrastructure, agriculture, health).
• Guides Recovery Framework: It provides evidence-based information that guides the development of a comprehensive recovery plan based on the principles of “Build Back Better,” incorporating measures to reduce future risks.

The PDNA is typically led by the government of the affected country, in collaboration with international partners such as the United Nations, the World Bank, and the European Union. The process is also crucial for building donor confidence and mobilizing international funds for recovery.

(b) Concept of disaster risk reduction

Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

is a systematic approach to analyzing and managing the risks of disasters. Its objective is to reduce the negative impacts of disasters, such as loss of life and economic damage, by reducing the causal factors of disasters within a society. It represents a significant paradigm shift in disaster management—from a

reactive

culture of responding after a disaster to a

proactive

culture of preventing and mitigating risks.

The concept of DRR is based on the understanding that disasters are not just natural events, but are the result of complex interactions between hazards and social vulnerability. The core elements of DRR are:

• Understanding Risk: Systematically assessing hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks.
• Strengthening Risk Governance: Building robust institutional, legal, and policy frameworks to manage DRR.
• Investing in DRR for Resilience: Investing in structural (e.g., safer schools, hospitals) and non-structural (e.g., awareness campaigns, early warning systems) measures to reduce risk.
• Enhancing Disaster Preparedness for Effective Response: Integrating “Build Back Better” principles into recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.

The concept of DRR is clearly articulated in the

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030)

, which provides the global blueprint for DRR. Its ultimate goal is to build the resilience of communities and nations to withstand hazards and achieve sustainable development.

Q6. “People’s participation through civil society organizations plays a significant role in disaster risk reduction.” Elucidate.

Ans. This statement is absolutely true; people’s participation through Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) plays a significant and indispensable role in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). CSOs, which include Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Community-Based Organizations (CBOs), faith-based groups, and other voluntary associations, act as a vital bridge between the government and communities. They make DRR efforts more effective and sustainable by leveraging local knowledge, resilience, and community solidarity. People’s participation through CSOs plays a significant role in DRR in the following ways: 1. Community-level Awareness and Capacity Building: CSOs work directly with local communities. They disseminate information about risks in local languages and cultural contexts. They organize mock drills, training workshops, and awareness campaigns, preparing people to recognize hazards, understand early warnings, and respond safely. This ensures “last-mile connectivity,” where government warnings and policies reach the grassroots level. 2. Participatory Risk Assessment: CSOs help communities to assess their own risks, vulnerabilities, and capacities. They use techniques like Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), which empowers local people to identify their problems and solutions. This ensures that DRR plans are based on local realities and needs, rather than being top-down impositions. 3. Integration of Local Knowledge: Communities possess traditional knowledge about the environment and hazards, accumulated over generations. CSOs help integrate this invaluable knowledge with scientific data, leading to more holistic and effective DRR strategies. For example, promoting traditional water conservation techniques or cyclone-resistant housing designs. 4. Advocacy and Policy Influence: CSOs act as the voice of vulnerable and marginalized groups. They bring local concerns to the attention of policymakers at the district, state, and national levels. They advocate for governments to integrate DRR into development plans, allocate adequate funds, and create inclusive policies. 5. Role in Relief, Recovery, and Reconstruction: In the aftermath of a disaster, CSOs are often among the first responders. Due to their local presence and networks, they can quickly distribute relief materials and assist in rescue operations. In the recovery phase, they help ensure that aid reaches the most needy and that reconstruction efforts follow the “Build Back Better” principles. 6. Monitoring and Accountability: CSOs play a watchdog role by monitoring the implementation of government DRR programs. They ensure that resources are used properly and that authorities are held accountable for their duties. In conclusion, people’s participation through CSOs transforms DRR from a mere government exercise into a whole-of-society approach. It fosters local ownership, empowerment, and resilience, which are essential for sustainable disaster risk reduction.

Q7. Examine the measures for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction.

Ans. Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) is the process by which DRR considerations, knowledge, and measures are integrated into sustainable development policies, plans, and programs. Its aim is to ensure that development efforts do not inadvertently create new risks and that they contribute to reducing existing ones. It is a strategic shift from a reactive, short-term approach to a proactive, long-term, and development-oriented one. The key measures for mainstreaming DRR are as follows: 1. Policy and Legal Integration: This is the most critical step. Governments must explicitly incorporate DRR into development policies and legal frameworks at national and sub-national levels. For example:

• Sectoral Policies: Integrating risk considerations into all sectoral policies, such as agriculture, water resources, health, education, and urban planning. For instance, promoting drought-resistant crops in agricultural policy.
• Land-use Planning: Creating and enforcing risk-sensitive land-use plans that restrict new construction in hazardous areas like floodplains or landslide-prone slopes.
• Building Codes: Updating and strictly enforcing building codes to ensure that new constructions can withstand earthquakes, cyclones, and other hazards.

2. Institutional Strengthening:

Strong institutional arrangements are essential for mainstreaming DRR.

• Coordination Mechanisms: Establishing a high-level mechanism for coordination among different ministries and departments (e.g., planning, finance, environment, public works). In India, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) play this role.
• Capacity Building: Training planners, engineers, architects, and administrators on DRR principles and practices.

3. Financial Commitment and Investment:

Allocating dedicated funds for DRR is crucial.

• Budgetary Allocation: Including specific line items for DRR measures in national and sectoral budgets.
• Risk-informed Investments: Ensuring that all public and private investment projects (e.g., dams, highways, factories) undergo a disaster risk assessment before they are initiated.
• Financial Incentives: Providing incentives like tax breaks or reduced insurance premiums to encourage the private sector to adopt safer practices.

4. Knowledge Management and Awareness:

• Risk Assessment: To effectively mainstream DRR, decision-makers must have a clear understanding of the risks they face. Conducting regular and updated multi-hazard risk assessments is essential.
• Education and Public Awareness: Incorporating DRR into school curricula and conducting awareness campaigns to inform the public about risks and safety measures.

5. Monitoring and Evaluation:

Establishing a system to track how well DRR is being integrated into development programs and to evaluate the impact of these efforts.

In essence, mainstreaming DRR is a continuous process that requires strong political will, collaboration across all sectors, and a shift in the development mindset, where risk reduction is seen as an essential investment rather than a cost.

Q8. Discuss the elements and dimensions of vulnerability.

Ans. Vulnerability is a central concept in disaster risk. It refers to the set of conditions that determine a community’s, system’s, asset’s, or individual’s propensity to be adversely affected by a hazard. Simply put, it is the degree of weakness, or the inability to withstand, cope with, and recover from a hazard. Two communities facing the same hazard can have vastly different impacts, largely due to differences in their levels of vulnerability. Vulnerability is commonly considered to be composed of three key elements: 1. Exposure: This refers to the presence of people, assets, systems, or other elements in hazardous areas that are thereby subject to potential future losses. For example, building a house in a floodplain increases exposure. Exposure in itself is not a negative thing, but it is a necessary condition for risk. 2. Susceptibility: This is the inherent weakness or fragility of an exposed element, which makes it unable to resist the forces of a hazard. For example, a house (exposure) built with poor quality materials is susceptible to collapse during an earthquake (hazard). Similarly, a malnourished person is more susceptible to disease. 3. Lack of Coping and Adaptive Capacity: This reflects the inability of a person, community, or society to anticipate, cope with, respond to, and recover from the impacts of adverse events by using available resources and capabilities. Coping capacity is short-term and relates to dealing with an emergency, while adaptive capacity is long-term and relates to making adjustments for future risks. Examples include lack of access to early warning systems, lack of financial savings, weak social networks, and ineffective governance. Vulnerability is not one-dimensional; it is multi-faceted and arises from the interaction of various factors. Its key dimensions are:

• Physical/Structural Dimension: This relates to the physical environment and the built infrastructure. It includes settlements in unsafe locations, buildings made of weak construction materials, and inadequately designed critical infrastructure (like bridges, hospitals).
• Social Dimension: This arises from social factors that affect people’s safety and well-being. It includes poverty, inequality, discrimination based on gender, age (children and the elderly), disability, caste, or ethnicity, and low levels of health and education. These factors limit people’s capacity to cope.
• Economic Dimension: This relates to the economic status of an individual or community. Poverty, limited livelihood options (e.g., reliance on a single crop), indebtedness, and lack of assets increase economic vulnerability. Economically weak people are unable to rebuild their livelihoods after a disaster.
• Environmental Dimension: This relates to the depletion of natural resources and the fragility of ecosystems. Factors like deforestation, soil degradation, scarcity of water resources, and loss of biodiversity increase environmental vulnerability, which in turn reduces the ability of communities to withstand hazards.

Understanding these elements and dimensions is critical for risk assessment and for developing effective, targeted risk reduction strategies.

Q9. “A disaster-resilient city is where people live in structured houses with inclusive governance.” Elaborate.

Ans. This statement accurately outlines the two most crucial pillars of a disaster-resilient city : physical resilience (“structured houses”) and socio-institutional resilience (“inclusive governance”) . A truly resilient city is not merely a collection of strong buildings; it is a system where physical robustness is supported by a governance framework that is equitable, accountable, and responsive to the needs of all its citizens. Let us elaborate on these two components: 1. Structured Houses (Physical Resilience): This first part of the statement refers to the strength and quality of the city’s physical fabric. “Structured houses” extends far beyond just homes and includes the entire built environment of the city. Key elements include:

• Resilient Infrastructure: This includes not only houses but also schools, hospitals, bridges, roads, power grids, and communication networks. These structures must be designed and constructed according to strict building codes to withstand earthquakes, cyclones, floods, and other local hazards.
• Continuity of Critical Services: A resilient city ensures that critical services like healthcare, water and sanitation, electricity, and transportation remain functional or are quickly restored during and after a disaster.
• Risk-sensitive Land-use Planning: City authorities use land-use plans to restrict development in hazardous zones (e.g., floodplains, unstable slopes) and preserve protective ecosystems like green spaces and wetlands that act as natural buffers.

However, physical strength alone is insufficient. If these strong structures are only accessible to the wealthy, while the poor are forced to live in informal settlements in unsafe conditions, the city as a whole is not resilient. This is where the role of inclusive governance becomes paramount.

2. Inclusive Governance (Socio-Institutional Resilience):

This is the second part of the statement and is the foundation of a city’s resilience. Inclusive governance means that decision-making processes are transparent, accountable, and participatory, and take into account the rights and needs of all citizens, including the most vulnerable sections of society.

• Participation and Empowerment: In an inclusive governance system, citizens, especially women, persons with disabilities, migrants, and the poor, are actively involved in risk assessment, planning, and decision-making processes. This ensures that policies are grounded in reality.
• Accountability and Transparency: Local governments are accountable to citizens for their actions. Budgets and plans are open to public scrutiny, which reduces corruption and ensures that resources go where they are most needed.
• Access to Services for All: Inclusive governance ensures that early warning systems, evacuation shelters, healthcare, and social safety nets are accessible to everyone, regardless of their socio-economic status. This reduces inequality, a key driver of vulnerability.
• Strong Institutions: This includes well-trained and equipped emergency management agencies, effective laws and regulations, and strong coordination between different government departments and civil society.

In conclusion, a disaster-resilient city is a symbiotic blend of physical and social components.

“Structured houses”

provide the city with the physical capacity to withstand shocks, while

“inclusive governance”

ensures that the entire community—especially the most vulnerable—is prepared and empowered to face these shocks, recover from them, and become stronger over time. One is incomplete and ineffective without the other.

Q10. Write short notes on the following in about 200 words each : 5+5 (a) National Database for Emergency Management (b) Phases in Resource Mobilisation

Ans. (a) National Database for Emergency Management The National Database for Emergency Management (NDEM) is a critical geospatial information system developed by the Government of India, aimed at facilitating the decision-making process in all phases of disaster management—preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery. It has been developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in collaboration with the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and the Ministry of Home Affairs. The key features of NDEM are:

• Centralized Data Repository: It integrates various types of data for the entire country onto a single platform. This includes base data (like administrative boundaries, transport networks, water bodies), socio-economic data (like population density, literacy), and hazard-specific data (like seismic zones, flood-prone areas, cyclone tracks).
• GIS-based Platform: It uses Geographic Information System (GIS) technology, which allows data to be viewed and analyzed as layers on maps. This helps in understanding spatial patterns and relationships, such as which schools or hospitals are located in a floodplain.
• Decision Support Tools: NDEM includes various modeling and analysis tools that help in simulating potential disaster scenarios, estimating damage, and planning evacuation routes.
• Near Real-time Data: It integrates near real-time weather and disaster-related information from satellites and other sources, which is crucial for early warning and response.

The purpose of NDEM is to provide disaster managers, planners, and response agencies with quick and accurate information so they can make better and more timely decisions. It serves as a powerful tool for improved preparedness, effective response, and risk-sensitive development planning.

(b) Phases in Resource Mobilisation

Resource mobilisation

for disaster management is a critical process that involves identifying, obtaining, and managing the financial, human, and material resources needed at different stages of the disaster cycle. This process is not limited to collecting funds after a disaster but is a continuous effort. Its main phases are as follows:

1. Pre-disaster Phase:

This phase focuses on preparedness and mitigation. It involves anticipating future needs and having resources ready in advance.

• Budgetary Allocations: Governments allocate regular funds for disaster management in their annual budgets.
• Contingency Funds: Contingency funds are created at national and state levels (like the National Disaster Response Fund – NDRF in India) that can be accessed immediately in an emergency.
• Partnerships and Agreements: Establishing pre-agreements with the private sector, NGOs, and international agencies to use their resources (e.g., equipment, expertise) during a disaster.
• Insurance and Risk Transfer: Transferring financial risk to the insurance sector through schemes like property and crop insurance.

2. During-disaster Phase:

This phase is focused on immediate response and relief.

• Release of Emergency Funds: Activating the pre-established contingency funds.
• Appeals: Issuing appeals for national and international assistance by governments and civil society organizations. This can include both financial donations and in-kind donations (e.g., food, medicine, blankets).
• Mobilising Human Resources: Deploying trained personnel, volunteers, and experts for response operations.

3. Post-disaster Phase:

This phase is focused on recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.

• Needs Assessment: Estimating the total resources required based on a Post-Disaster Needs Assessment (PDNA).
• Donor Conferences: Organizing conferences with international donors and financial institutions (like the World Bank, ADB) to raise funds for reconstruction.
• Loans and Grants: Securing concessional loans and grants for long-term reconstruction projects.
• Community Contribution: Involving the labour and resources of the local community in reconstruction efforts.

Effective resource mobilisation requires transparency, accountability, and proper coordination among all stakeholders.