IGNOU BHDC-101 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU BHDC-101 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

IGNOU BHDC-101 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in English

Q1. Discuss the problems related to the periodization and nomenclature of Hindi literature.

Ans. The history of Hindi literature spans nearly a thousand years. Periodization and nomenclature are essential to systematically understand this vast body of work, but this task has been complex and controversial. The main problems are as follows:

• The Problem of the Starting Point: There is a major debate about when Hindi literature truly begins. Some scholars consider Apabhramsha literature (like the works of Siddhas and Naths) as the earliest form of Hindi, while scholars like Acharya Ramchandra Shukla differentiate Apabhramsha from Hindi and mark the beginning of Hindi literature from the 11th century. This leads to disagreements about the timeline of the first period, the Adikal.
• The Basis of Nomenclature: On what basis should a period be named – based on the dominant literary trend, the ruling dynasty, or a prominent personality? George Grierson named the first period ‘Charan Kal’ (Age of the Bards), while the Mishra brothers called it ‘Prarambhik Kal’ (Initial Period). Acharya Shukla used literary trends as the basis and proposed the names ‘Veergatha Kal’ (The Age of Heroic Ballads), ‘Bhakti Kal’ (The Age of Devotion), ‘Riti Kal’ (The Age of Poetics), and ‘Gadhya Kal’ (The Age of Prose). Among these, the name ‘Veergatha Kal’ became the most contentious.
• Multiplicity of Trends: A single historical period does not exhibit only one literary trend. For instance, the period Shukla called ‘Veergatha Kal’ not only contained heroic poetry but also the religious philosophy of the Siddhas and Naths, Jain poetry, and the romantic poetry of Vidyapati. Based on this, Acharya Hazariprasad Dwivedi argued that the name ‘Veergatha Kal’ was inadequate and proposed the more comprehensive and scientific name ‘Adikal’ (The Early Period), which is now widely accepted.
• Defining Timelines: It is difficult to draw a clear dividing line between two periods. The trends of Bhaktikal and Ritikal continued to overlap for some time. For example, at the end of Bhaktikal and the beginning of Ritikal, many poets were composing works reflecting both trends.

In short, the periodization of Hindi literature is an attempt at simplification, but confining the vibrant and mixed stream of literature into fixed periods and names has always been a challenging task. Despite the efforts of various scholars, some disagreements persist, although the framework provided by Acharya Shukla , with some modifications, remains the most accepted one today.

Q2. Give an introduction to Apabhramsha literature.

Ans. Apabhramsha language is a crucial link between the Middle Indo-Aryan languages and the Modern Indo-Aryan languages (like Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali). Its period is generally considered to be from 500 AD to 1000 AD . The study of Apabhramsha literature is essential to understand the background of the Adikal (Early Period) of Hindi literature. Apabhramsha literature can be primarily divided into three streams:

1. Jain Literature: The most voluminous and significant literature in Apabhramsha was written by Jain poets. They composed mythological tales and hagiographies (charit kavyas) to propagate the principles of their religion.
   • Swayambhu: He is called the ‘Valmiki of Apabhramsha’. His epic ‘Paumachariu’ is a Jain Ramayana based on the story of Rama. It is considered the finest epic of Apabhramsha.
   • Pushpadant: This 10th-century poet composed works like ‘Mahapuran’ , ‘Nayakumarachariu’, and ‘Jasaharachariu’. ‘Mahapuran’ narrates the life stories of 63 great figures of Jainism.
   • Dhanapal: His work ‘Bhavisayattakaha’ is based on a popular folktale, describing a merchant’s journey and adventurous events.
2. Siddha Literature: The Siddhas of the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism wrote songs and couplets (dohas) in the vernacular Apabhramsha to express their mystical spiritual practices. Their number is believed to be 84, among whom Sarahpa, Kanhapa, Luipa are prominent. Sarahpa is also considered the first poet of Hindi. Their works feature a rejection of religious orthodoxies and rituals and emphasize the importance of the Guru. Their language is called ‘Sandha Bhasha’ (twilight language).
3. Nath Literature: The Nath sect evolved from the Siddha tradition. Gorakhnath was its founder. The Naths emphasized Hatha Yoga and preached self-control and moral purity. Their compositions are also in a language mixed with Apabhramsha and early Hindi. Nath literature deeply influenced the Sant poetry of the Bhakti period, especially the ideas of Kabir.

Thus, Apabhramsha literature prepared the narrative tradition, poetic forms (Doha-Chaupai), and philosophical background for later Hindi literature.

Q3. Discuss the main characteristics of Veer-gatha poetry.

Ans. The heroic-dominant poetry composed during the Adikal (approx. 1050-1375 AD) of Hindi literature is known as ‘Veer-gatha Kavya’ (Heroic Ballad Poetry). During this era, India was divided into small kingdoms, and kings were constantly engaged in warfare. This historical context shaped the characteristics of Veer-gatha poetry. Its main features are as follows:

• Praise of Patron Kings: Most poets of this period were bards (Charans or Bhats) who lived in the courts of their patron kings. Therefore, the main purpose of their poetry was to provide an exaggerated description of their king’s valor, might, and fame.
• Vivid Descriptions of Wars: Since the poets themselves often went to the battlefield, their descriptions of war are extremely lively, thrilling, and realistic. The clang of weapons, the clamor of armies, and the zeal of warriors come alive in their poems.
• A Synthesis of Heroic and Erotic Sentiments (Rasas): These poems are dominated by the heroic sentiment (Veer Rasa), but they also contain beautiful depictions of the erotic sentiment (Shringar Rasa). Most wars of that time were fought to win a princess, so war and love went hand in hand. ‘Prithviraj Raso’ is an excellent example of this.
• Mixture of Historicity and Imagination: While the characters and events in these poems are historical, the poets used their imagination extensively, making the accounts interesting and exaggerated. For this reason, the historical authenticity of these texts is considered doubtful .
• Absence of a National Spirit: The concept of ‘nation’ in this poetry was narrow. The poets considered only their patron king’s domain as their nation and praised only him. The sense of viewing India as a single nation was absent.
• Use of Dingal and Pingal Languages: The language of Veer-gatha poetry was mainly Dingal (a mix of Rajasthani and Apabhramsha) and Pingal (a mix of Brajbhasha and Apabhramsha). Dingal was used for heroic sentiments and Pingal for tender emotions.
• Both Epic and Lyrical Forms: In this period, both epic poems (Prabandh Kavya) like ‘Prithviraj Raso’ and ‘Parmal Raso’, and lyrical poems (Muktaka Kavya) like ‘Bisaldev Raso’ were composed.

Prominent Veer-gatha texts include ‘Prithviraj Raso’ by Chandbardai, ‘Parmal Raso’ (Alha-Khand) by Jagnik, and ‘Bisaldev Raso’ by Narpati Nalh.

Q4. Analyze the philosophical foundations of Gyanashrayi Bhakti poetry.

Ans. The Gyanashrayi (knowledge-oriented) branch of the Nirgun school of Bhakti poetry, also known as ‘Sant Kavya’, does not have a philosophical base rooted in a single philosophy but is a synthesis of several philosophical traditions. The Sant poets, especially Kabir, assimilated elements from various sources to create a practical and accessible philosophy for the common people. Its main philosophical foundations are as follows:

1. Indian Monism (Advaita Vedanta): The core philosophical foundation of Sant poetry is Shankaracharya’s Advaita Vedanta. According to it, Brahman (the Absolute) is one, eternal, infinite, and formless. The world appears real due to ‘Maya’ (illusion). The individual soul (Atman) and the universal soul (Brahman) are essentially one (‘Aham Brahmasmi’). Kabir and other saints emphasized the worship of this formless, attributeless God.
2. Hatha Yoga of the Nath Sect: The saints adopted their spiritual practices from the Nath sect. The technical vocabulary of Hatha Yoga, such as Ida, Pingala, Sushumna, piercing the six chakras (shatchakra bhedan), awakening of Kundalini, and ‘shunya-samadhi’ , is frequently used in Sant poetry. Kabir’s ‘Ulatbansis’ (upside-down verses) are symbolic descriptions of these yogic practices.
3. Monotheism of Islam: The Sant poets were also deeply influenced by the monotheistic (Tawhid) principle of Islam. They rejected idol worship, the concept of avatars, and polytheism, and insisted on one formless God (whom they called by many names like Ram, Rahim, Hari, Allah).
4. Sufi Element of Love: Although Sant poetry is knowledge-dominant, it also shows the influence of the Sufi path of love (Ishq). The concept of viewing God as the beloved and the soul as the lover (emotional mysticism) is a result of Sufi influence.
5. Spirit of Social Protest: The philosophy of the Sant poets was not just spiritual but also social. They vehemently opposed the caste system, high-low distinctions, external rituals, and religious hypocrisy. Theirs was a philosophy of equality and humanism, based more on their own experience and wisdom than on any scriptural tradition.

Thus, the philosophy of Gyanashrayi poetry is a remarkable synthesis of the knowledge of Vedanta, the yoga of the Naths, the monotheism of Islam, and the love of the Sufis, which poets like Kabir reshaped with their original genius.

Q5. Introduce the major Sant poets.

Ans. The poets of the Nirgun Gyanashrayi branch of the Bhakti movement are known as ‘Sant poets’. These poets showed the path of worshipping a formless God based on knowledge and experience and condemned social evils. The major Sant poets are as follows:

• Kabir Das (1398-1518 AD): Kabir is the representative and greatest poet of the Sant poetry stream. He was a weaver and is considered a disciple of Ramananda. Kabir was a great social reformer, a revolutionary, and a trend-setting poet. He launched a severe attack on the religious hypocrisy, rituals, idol worship, and caste system of both Hindus and Muslims. His teachings were compiled by his disciple Dharmadas in a collection called ‘Bijak’ , which has three parts: Sakhi, Sabad, and Ramaini. His language is a mixture of dialects, known as ‘Sadhukkadi’ . He was a worshipper of the formless Brahman and a great mystic poet.
• Raidas (Ravidas): Raidas was a tanner by caste. He was a contemporary of Kabir and is also considered a disciple of Ramananda. His verses reflect deep devotion, humility, and self-surrender. He dismissed caste-based discrimination as meaningless and emphasized purity of mind (‘Man changa to kathauti mein Ganga’). His verses are also included in the ‘Guru Granth Sahib’. Mirabai considered him her guru.
• Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539 AD): Guru Nanak was the founder of Sikhism and its first Guru. Like Kabir, his teachings strongly condemn social evils and advocate for monotheism. He gave a message of love, equality, and humanity. His poetry is a synthesis of devotion, knowledge, and action. His verses are compiled in the ‘Mahala’ section of the ‘Guru Granth Sahib’ . His language is a mixture of Punjabi, Persian, and Hindi.
• Dadu Dayal (1544-1603 AD): Dadu Dayal was a cotton-carder from Gujarat. He founded the ‘Parabrahma Sampradaya’, which later came to be known as the ‘Dadu Panth’. The main messages in his poetry are divine love, simple spiritual practice, and communal harmony. He was an extremely liberal and syncretic saint. His compositions were compiled by his disciples under the names ‘Hardevani’ and later ‘Angavadhu’ .
• Sundardas (1596-1689 AD): Sundardas was the most educated among the Sant poets. He was a disciple of Dadu Dayal. Being educated, his language is a refined Brajbhasha, and his works also show the influence of classical poetics. He demonstrated a fine sense of poetic art. ‘Sundar Vilas’ and ‘Gyan Samudra’ are his major works.

Q6. Elucidate the stylistic features of Sufi poetry.

Ans. The poetry of the Premashrayi (or Premmargi, love-oriented) branch of the Nirgun school of Bhakti is known as Sufi poetry. These poets expressed the spiritual principles of Sufism through love stories from Hindu households. The stylistic (shilp-gat) features of this poetry are very distinct:

• Use of the Masnavi Style: Sufi poets adopted the ‘Masnavi’ poetic style from Persian literature. According to this style, the poem begins with praise for God (hamd), veneration of the Prophet Muhammad (na’t), praise for the contemporary ruler, and the importance of the Guru. The main story begins after this introductory section.
• Narrative (Prabandh) Form: Almost all Sufi poems are narrative in form , meaning they contain a coherent story. They are long narrative poems, such as Jayasi’s ‘Padmavat’ and Manjhan’s ‘Madhumalti’.
• Use of Awadhi Language: Sufi poets adopted a form of colloquial Awadhi for their poetry. This language is very effective in expressing emotions and has a certain sweetness. Jayasi’s Awadhi is the best example of this.
• Use of Doha-Chaupai Meter: To narrate the story, these poets used the ‘Doha-Chaupai’ couplet-quatrain pattern, a tradition inherited from Apabhramsha literature. Typically, a doha (couplet) is placed after a set of seven chaupais (quatrains). This same pattern was later adopted by Tulsidas in ‘Ramcharitmanas’.
• Symbolism and Allegory: The most significant stylistic feature of Sufi poetry is its symbolism . The worldly love story described in it is actually an expression of divine love. The characters of the story (hero, heroine, guru, villain) function as spiritual symbols. For example, in ‘Padmavat’, King Ratansen is a symbol of the ‘soul’ (Atma), Padmavati of the ‘divine’ (Paramatma), the parrot Hiraman of the ‘Guru’, and Alauddin of ‘illusion’ (Maya).
• Use of Indian Narrative Conventions: Although the philosophy was Sufi, the story, characters, setting, and narrative motifs (like birth, head-to-toe description, twelve-month description of seasons, falling in love by seeing a portrait) are completely Indian. This brought the poetry very close to the Indian psyche.

Due to these stylistic features, Sufi poetry succeeded in creating its own distinct identity and gave a new poetic tradition to Hindi literature.

Q7. Analyze the tradition of Krishna Bhakti poetry in Hindi.

Ans. Hindi literature has a rich and long tradition of Krishna Bhakti poetry. Although its origins can be traced to the 14th-century verses of the Maithili poet Vidyapati , its true flourishing occurred during the Bhakti period in the 16th century. The ‘Pushtimarg’ (Path of Grace), established by Vallabhacharya , made the most significant contribution to the development of this tradition.

The tradition of Krishna Bhakti poetry can be analyzed based on the following points:

1. Major Sects and Poets:
   • Pushtimarg (Vallabha Sampradaya): Its founder was Vallabhacharya. He made the singing of the ‘leelas’ (divine plays) of Krishna’s childhood and adolescence the basis of devotion. His son, Vitthalnath, formed a group of eight poets known as the ‘Ashtachhap’ (Eight Seals). Surdas was the most prominent among them. Other poets included Kumbhandas, Parmananddas, Krishnadas, Nanddas, Govindswami, Chhitswami, and Chaturbhujdas.
   • Nimbarka Sampradaya: This sect emphasized the joint worship of Radha and Krishna. Shribhatt and Harivyas Dev were the major poets of this sect.
   • Radhavallabh Sampradaya: Hit Harivansh founded this sect. In it, Radha is considered superior to Krishna and is worshipped accordingly.
   • Sakhi Sampradaya (Haridasi Sampradaya): Swami Haridas was its founder. In this tradition, the devotee considers themself a ‘sakhi’ (female friend) of Krishna and enjoys his divine plays.
   • Non-sectarian Poets: Some poets were not bound by any sect. Among them, Mirabai and Raskhan are preeminent. Mira worshipped Krishna as her husband (Madhurya Bhava), while a Muslim poet like Raskhan expressed unparalleled love for Krishna.
2. General Characteristics of the Poetry:
   • Subject Matter: Enchanting depiction of Krishna’s childhood form (Bal-leela) and adolescent form (Ras-leela, Prem-leela).
   • Rasa (Sentiment): Predominance of Vatsalya Rasa (parental affection, as shown by Yashoda for Krishna) and Shringar Rasa (erotic/romantic sentiment, of Radha-Krishna). Surdas is called the ’emperor of Vatsalya Rasa’.
   • Language: The language of the poetry is the extremely sweet and musical Brajbhasha .
   • Poetic Form: Mainly the lyrical ‘pada’ style (singable verses) was used, which is a wonderful fusion of music and emotion.

In summary, Krishna Bhakti poetry greatly enriched Hindi literature in terms of emotion, language, music, and art. Surdas is the sun of this tradition, whose work ‘Sursagar’ is the representative text of this poetic stream.

Q8. Analyze the subject matters of Ritibaddha poets.

Ans. The poets of the Ritikaal (approx. 1650-1850 AD) who composed works based on the principles of Sanskrit poetics (Lakshan Granthas), presenting both the rules (lakshan) and examples of poetry, are known as Ritibaddha poets (tradition-bound poets). Their main objectives were to display their poetic erudition and to entertain their patron kings. Consequently, their subject matters were limited and conventional.

The main subject matters of Ritibaddha poets are as follows:

1. Exposition of Poetic Elements (Kavyanga-Nirupan): The foremost subject for these poets was the exposition of various elements of poetry, such as Rasa (sentiment), Alankara (figure of speech), Chhanda (meter), Shabda-Shakti (power of words), Guna-Dosha (poetic merits and demerits) , and Nayika-Bheda (classification of heroines) . They would first provide the definition (lakshan) based on Sanskrit texts and then present their original poetry as an example (lakshya) to illustrate it. Chintamani’s ‘Kavikulkalpataru’, Matiram’s ‘Rasraj’, and Keshavdas’s ‘Kavipriya’ are works of this type.
2. Description of Shringar (Erotic Sentiment): Eroticism is the central tendency of Ritibaddha poetry. It was their most beloved and extensive subject. It has two aspects:
   • Sanyog Shringar (Love in Union): This involves the depiction of the meeting of the hero and heroine, their love play, banter, and amorous activities.
   • Viyog Shringar (Love in Separation): This contains poignant but often exaggerated descriptions of the various states of separation (purvarag, maan, pravas).
3. Nayika-Bheda and Nakh-Shikh Description: Within the theme of Shringar, the classification of heroines was depicted in great detail. Poets classified heroines based on caste, age, qualities, and nature (e.g., Swakiya, Parakiya, Mugdha, Praudha, Khandita) and wrote poems as examples for them. A major poetic convention was the ‘Nakh-Shikh’ description, a detailed portrayal of the heroine’s beauty from head to toe.
4. Panegyrics (Praise of Patrons): Since they were court poets, praising the valor, generosity, and grandeur of their patron kings was also an essential subject of their poetry.
5. Devotion and Morality: Some poets also wrote couplets on devotion and ethics alongside their erotic verses, but this was not their primary subject. It is usually found at the end of the poem or in the invocation.

Bhushan is an exception among them, who chose

Veer Rasa (Heroic Sentiment)

instead of Shringar as his main subject and wrote powerful descriptions of the bravery of Shivaji and Chhatrasal. Overall, the subject matter of Ritibaddha poetry was detached from the broader experiences of life and confined to the hedonistic tastes of the royal courts.

Q9. Write short notes on any two of the following: (a) The poetry of Pushpadant (b) Mysticism in Nirgun poetry (c) Tulsidas (d) Ghananand

Ans. (a) The poetry of Pushpadant Pushpadant was a great 10th-century poet of the Apabhramsha language. He was initially a Shaivite but later converted to Jainism. He received patronage from Bharat, a minister of the Rashtrakuta king. Pushpadant was proud of his scholarship and poetic talent, and thus gave himself titles like ‘Abhiman Meru’ (Mountain of Pride), ‘Kavya Ratnakar’ (Ocean of Poetry), and ‘Kavikul-Tilak’ (Ornament of the Poet-Clan).

His three major works are:

1. Mahapuran: This is his most famous and extensive work. It narrates the life stories of 63 great figures of Jainism (Tirthankaras, Chakravartins, etc.).
2. Nayakumarachariu (Charita of Nagakumara): It describes the character of Prince Nagakumara.
3. Jasaharachariu (Charita of Yashodhara): It contains the story of King Yashodhara.

The characteristics of Pushpadant’s poetry include a love for ornamentation (alankara), high flights of imagination, and a natural narrative flow. He also vividly depicted the contemporary society and folk life in his works. He had an extraordinary command of the language. He enriched Apabhramsha literature in the tradition of ‘charit-kavya’ (hagiographical poetry) and is considered the second most important poet of Apabhramsha after Swayambhu.

(c) Tulsidas Goswami Tulsidas (c. 1532-1623 AD) is the preeminent poet of the Ram Bhakti branch within the Sagun school of Bhakti poetry. He is often called the sun of Hindi literature. His reputation as a ‘Loknayak’ (leader of the people) remains undiminished even today.

Tulsidas was a great synthesizer (Samanvayvadi). He made a successful effort to reconcile the various conflicts of his time, such as between Shaivism and Vaishnavism, the Sagun and Nirgun philosophies, knowledge and devotion, and scripture and folklore. His devotion was of the ‘Dasya Bhava’ (sentiment of a servant to his master), in which he considers himself a servant of Lord Rama.

His epic, ‘Ramcharitmanas’ , is a priceless treasure of world literature. It is not just the story of Rama but a text that presents the ideal of Indian society and culture, with the fundamental aim of establishing ‘Lok-Mangal’ (welfare of the masses). By composing this epic in the vernacular Awadhi , he brought the story of Rama to every household.

Tulsidas wrote with equal mastery in both Awadhi and Brajbhasha. His major works are:

• In Awadhi: Ramcharitmanas, Parvati Mangal, Janaki Mangal, Ramlalanahachhu.
• In Brajbhasha: Vinaypatrika, Kavitavali, Gitavali, Krishna Gitavali, Dohavali.

‘Vinaypatrika’ is an excellent example of his plaintive devotion, and ‘Kavitavali’ showcases his poetic genius. Due to these qualities, Tulsidas is counted among the greatest poets of Hindi.