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IGNOU BHDC-102 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. Discuss the circumstances of the rise of the Bharatendu Era.

Ans. The Bharatendu Era (approx. 1850-1900) emerged during a transitional period in Indian history. The backdrop for this era was shaped by several social, political, economic, and cultural circumstances that influenced the direction and state of literature. A discussion of these circumstances is as follows: 1. Political Circumstances:

• After the failure of the 1857 Revolt, India came completely under the British Empire. The rule of the East India Company ended, and direct rule by the British Crown was established.
• While there was discontent among Indians against British rule, there was also a sense of despair due to their military might.
• The British policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ was at its peak, which was harming the spirit of national unity. It was in this context that the seeds of national consciousness were sown.

2. Social Circumstances:

• Indian society was afflicted by numerous evil practices and superstitions, such as child marriage, the Sati system, prohibition of widow remarriage, untouchability, etc.
• Reformist movements like the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and Prarthana Samaj attacked these malpractices and created a wave of renaissance in society. The writers of the Bharatendu Era supported these reforms.

3. Economic Circumstances:

• The British policy of economic exploitation had destroyed Indian cottage industries. The ‘Drain of Wealth’ theory explained to Indians that the root cause of the country’s poverty was British rule.
• Bharatendu, in his literature, expressed concern over this economic plight by writing, “पै धन विदेश चलि जात इहै अति ख्वारी” (All the wealth is flowing to foreign lands, this is the greatest sorrow).

4. Cultural and Educational Circumstances:

• The spread of English education gave rise to an educated class that was familiar with Western ideas, science, and logic.
• The development of the press and journalism facilitated the exchange of ideas. Bharatendu himself edited magazines like ‘Kavivachansudha’ and ‘Harishchandra Magazine’.
• The development of Khadiboli as the language of prose is a contribution of this era, which paved the way for modern literature.

All these combined circumstances inspired Bharatendu and his contemporary writers to not just consider literature a means of entertainment but to make it a powerful medium for social reform and nation-building.

Q2. Discuss the main trends of the poetry of the Bharatendu Era.

Ans. The poetry of the Bharatendu Era (1850-1900) is the gateway to modern Hindi poetry. The poetry of this era shows a remarkable synthesis of the eroticism and devotional sentiments of the Ritikal period with modern consciousness. Its main trends are as follows: 1. Spirit of Nationalism: For the first time, the voice of patriotism and nationalism became prominent in poetry. On one hand, poets wrote verses of ‘Rajbhakti’ (loyalty to the crown) praising the British rule, while on the other, they also awakened the spirit of ‘Deshbhakti’ (patriotism) by expressing concern over the country’s plight. Bharatendu’s lines “अँगरेज राज सुख साज सजे सब भारी। पै धन बिदेस चलि जात इहै अति ख्वारी॥” (The English rule is well-adorned with comforts, but our wealth flows abroad, which is the greatest sorrow) are a perfect example of this duality. 2. Social Consciousness and Reform: The poets of the Bharatendu era sharply satirized the evils prevalent in society like child marriage, untouchability, religious hypocrisy, and illiteracy. They supported progressive ideas like widow remarriage and women’s education. Pratap Narayan Mishra and Badrinarayan Chaudhary ‘Premghan’ did significant work in this direction. 3. Eroticism (Shringar): The poetry of this era could not completely break free from the Ritikalin tradition of erotic poetry. Bharatendu himself was a romantic poet and composed erotic poems based on the love of Radha-Krishna. However, his eroticism had decorum and piety instead of the obscenity of the Ritikal period. 4. Humour and Satire: A key feature of Bharatendu-era poetry is humour and satire. The poets used a satirical style to attack social evils, the blind imitation of Western civilization, and the corruption of government officials. Works like ‘Bandar Sabha’ (The Monkey Assembly) and ‘Bakri Vilap’ (The Goat’s Lament) are excellent examples. 5. Language and Style: The language of poetry during this era remained primarily Brajbhasha , although Khadiboli had been established in prose. The poets made the language simple and lively by using popular idioms, proverbs, and words. In terms of poetic forms, along with traditional forms like Muktak, Kavitt, Savaiya, and Pad, folk styles (Kajri, Lavani) were also adopted. In short, the poetry of the Bharatendu Era is significant for its transitional character, where old traditions were ending and new ideas and emotions were emerging.

Q3. Analyze the stylistic features of Chhayavad poetry.

Ans. Chhayavad (approx. 1918-1936) is an important poetic movement in Hindi literature, known not only for its emotional subtlety but also for its stylistic excellence. Chhayavad rebelled against the narrative-driven and overtly moralistic poetry of the Dwivedi era and gave new heights to poetic craftsmanship. Its main stylistic features are as follows: 1. Suggestiveness and Symbolism: Chhayavadi poets made extensive use of the word powers of ‘Lakshana’ (suggestiveness) and ‘Vyanjana’ (implication) instead of ‘Abhidha’ (literal meaning) to express their subtle feelings. They gave a new dimension to their emotions by using various elements of nature and life as symbols. For example, ‘lotus’ became a symbol of beauty, ‘night’ of despair, and ‘dawn’ of hope. 2. Pictorial Language and Imagery: Chhayavadi poetry is not to be ‘read’, but to be ‘felt’ and ‘seen’. The poets used words to create such vivid pictures (images) that they become imprinted on the reader’s mind. This is known as ‘Chitrabhasha’ or ‘Bimb-Dharmita’ (pictorial quality). The poems of Sumitranandan Pant are the best examples of this. 3. Personification (Manvikaran): The Chhayavadi poets brought inanimate nature to life by attributing human emotions and activities to it. This is called the ‘Manvikaran’ अलंकार (personification). In Prasad’s line “बीती विभावरी जाग री, अंबर पनघट में डुबो रही तारा-घट ऊषा नागरी” (The night has passed, wake up; the dawn-maiden is dipping her star-pitcher into the sky-well), ‘Usha’ (dawn) is depicted as a clever woman. 4. Language: The language of Chhayavadi poetry is a refined, Sanskritized, and ‘Tatsam’-dominant Khadiboli. It possesses a wonderful quality of gentleness, sweetness, and musicality. The poets freed the language from grammatical constraints, making it more flexible and suitable for expressing emotions. 5. Metrical System: Although Chhayavadi poets used traditional metric verses, their greatest contribution is ‘Mukt Chhand’ (free verse). Nirala is considered the ‘pioneer of free verse’. This form freed poetry from the bondage of rhyme and gave it the freedom to flow according to the emotions. 6. Transferred Epithet (Visheshan-Viparyay): A subtle feature of Chhayavadi craft is the transferred epithet, where an adjective is moved from its actual noun to another noun, e.g., ‘तुम्हारी सिसकियों की सेज’ (the bed of your sobs ). Thus, at the level of craft, Chhayavad provided unprecedented richness and depth to Hindi poetry, which paved the way for subsequent poetic movements.

Q4. Give an introduction to the major post-Chhayavad poets.

Ans. In Hindi literature, the poetic period after 1936, which moved away from the ethereal and overly imaginative nature of Chhayavad, is known as Uttar-Chhayavad (Post-Chhayavad). During this period, two main poetic trends emerged: the National-Cultural stream and Individualistic Lyric Poetry (Halavad) . The introduction of the major poets of this period is as follows: 1. Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’ (1908-1974): Dinkar is considered the most powerful poet of the national-cultural stream. He is also known as ‘Anal Kavi’ (Poet of Fire) or ‘Yug-Charan’ (Bard of the Era). On one hand, his poetry includes spirited works like ‘Kurukshetra’, ‘Rashmirathi’, and ‘Parshuram ki Pratiksha’, which are filled with valor, heroism, and national consciousness. On the other hand, there is a work like ‘Urvashi’, which contains a deep psychological depiction of love and beauty. He was honored with the Jnanpith Award for ‘Urvashi’. His language is vigorous and fluid. 2. Harivansh Rai Bachchan (1907-2003): Bachchan is the pioneer poet of individualistic lyric poetry or ‘Halavad’. He made personal joys and sorrows, love, despair, and ecstasy the subjects of his poetry. His work ‘Madhushala’ (1935) brought him immense popularity. Through the symbols of wine, tavern, cup-bearer, and goblet, he presented a philosophy of life in a simple and delightful manner. His feelings of sorrow and loneliness are expressed in ‘Nisha Nimantran’ and ‘Ekant Sangeet’. His language is direct, simple, and musical. 3. Makhanlal Chaturvedi (1889-1968): Famous by the pen name ‘Ek Bharatiya Aatma’ (An Indian Soul), Chaturvedi was a prominent poet of national-cultural consciousness. Although his poetic pursuits ran parallel to Chhayavad, his dominant tone was that of nationalism. Poems like ‘Kaidi aur Kokila’ (The Prisoner and the Cuckoo) and ‘Pushp ki Abhilasha’ (The Flower’s Desire) became extremely popular during the freedom struggle. His poems are filled with the spirit of sacrifice, selflessness, and ardent patriotism. ‘Himkiritini’ and ‘Himtarangini’ are his major poetry collections. 4. Subhadra Kumari Chauhan (1904-1948): Subhadra ji is the most powerful poetess of the national-cultural stream. Her poem “Khoob ladi mardani woh to Jhansi wali Rani thi” (She fought valiantly, the man-like queen of Jhansi) made her a household name. Along with heroic sentiment (Veer Ras), her poems also contain tender feelings of motherly love and domestic life. ‘Mukul’ and ‘Tridhara’ are her famous poetry collections. These poets connected poetry with the concrete realities of the individual and society after Chhayavad and took it to the wider masses.

Q5. Analyze the characteristics of the Progressive poetry movement.

Ans. The poetic movement that emerged in Hindi literature around 1936, influenced by Marxist ideology, is known as the ‘Progressive Poetic Movement’ (Pragativad). Its formal beginning is considered to be the first conference of the ‘Progressive Writers’ Association’ in 1936, presided over by Premchand. This poetic stream opposed the subjectivity and fantasy of Chhayavad and connected literature with social reality. Its main characteristics are as follows: 1. Sympathy for the Exploited and Anger towards Exploiters: The focal point of Progressive poetry is the exploited, oppressed, and deprived section of society (farmers, laborers). The poets depicted their poverty, helplessness, and pathetic condition realistically. At the same time, they expressed intense hatred and anger towards the exploiting classes like capitalists, landlords, and feudal lords. 2. Depiction of Social Reality: This poetic stream, instead of wandering in the world of imagination, focused its attention on the concrete realities of society, such as hunger, unemployment, social inequality, and famine. Nagarjun’s poem ‘Akaal aur Uske Baad’ (The Famine and After) is a poignant example of this. 3. Call for Revolution: Being influenced by Marxist philosophy, Progressive poets considered revolution a necessary means to bring about social and economic equality. Through their poems, they inspired the exploited class to fight for their rights and to change the existing system. 4. Opposition to Dogma and Superstition: Progressive poets attacked religion, God, and social dogmas. They considered humanity as the greatest religion and opposed every tradition that caused the exploitation of man. 5. Art and Language-Style: The Progressive poets believed in ‘art for the people’s sake’ rather than ‘art for art’s sake’. Therefore, they emphasized direct and plain expression of feelings. The language was deliberately kept simple, easy, and close to common speech so that the message could easily reach the masses. The unnecessary use of figures of speech and imagery was avoided. Prominent Progressive poets include Nagarjun, Kedarnath Agarwal, Trilochan Shastri, and Shivmangal Singh ‘Suman’ . Overall, Progressive poetry provided Hindi poetry with a social concern and purpose.

Q6. Shed light on the linguistic and stylistic features of Prayogvad (Experimentalism).

Ans. The beginning of Prayogvad (Experimentalism) is traced to the publication of ‘Tar Saptak’ (The Seven-Stringed Lyre) in 1943, edited by Agyeya. The experimentalist poets believed that with the changing nature of emotion and sensibility, new experiments in the tools of expression (language, style, meter, figures of speech) were also necessary. Therefore, Prayogvad is identified by its specific linguistic and stylistic features, which are as follows: 1. Use of New Images, Symbols, and Metaphors: Experimentalist poets rejected traditional and hackneyed metaphors (like ‘moon-like face’). They drew new metaphors from modern urban life and science. Agyeya wrote, “These metaphors have become tarnished.” They used new and unexpected images like ‘the bulb of love has fused’ or ‘for a moment on the green grass’. 2. Prose-like and Colloquial Form of Language: Freeing poetry from its poetic cloak, the experimentalists adopted the plain-spokenness of prose and colloquial language. They considered language a medium of communication rather than a means of adornment. English, Urdu, and regional words were used freely. 3. Intellectualism and a Touch of Satire: Experimentalist poetry is highly intellectual. It gives importance to ideas and arguments instead of sentimentality. Due to this intellectualism, the poems often contain sharp satire on social absurdities and the artificiality of middle-class life. 4. Portrayal of the Individual’s Mental Tangles: In experimentalist poetry, the language was twisted and broken to express the inner tangles, frustrations, trauma, loneliness, and alienation of the individual’s mind. The syntax was disrupted to portray the disarray of the mind as it is. 5. Insistence on Free Verse: The experimentalist poets completely rejected the constraints of meter and considered free verse as the most appropriate medium to express their views. They emphasized the internal rhythm of the poem, not external rhyming. In short, Prayogvad conducted bold experiments with language. Although it was accused of being obscure and lacking artistry, it provided Hindi poetry with a new linguistic consciousness and freedom of expression, which later paved the way for ‘Nai Kavita’ (New Poetry).

Q7. Give an introduction to the major trends of poetry in the seventh decade (1960s).

Ans. In Hindi poetry, the seventh decade (1960-1970) is considered the decade of disillusionment, anger, and rebellion. The shattering of post-independence dreams, political corruption, social anomalies, and economic inequality made the poets of this decade profoundly disappointed and angry. The poetry of this period is also called ‘Sathottari Kavita’ (Post-60s Poetry). Its main trends are as follows: 1. Expression of Disillusionment and Anger: The central tone of the poetry of this decade is ‘disillusionment’ (Mohbhang). The ideals established after independence proved to be hollow. Poets expressed intense anger at the failure of Nehruvian policies, Five-Year Plans, and socialist slogans. Dhoomil’s famous line, “अपने यहाँ संसद तेली की वह घानी है, जिसमें आधा तेल है और आधा पानी है” (Our Parliament is an oil-press where half is oil and half is water), is a prime example of this political disillusionment. 2. Anti-Establishment and Voice of Rejection: The post-60s poets viewed all contemporary political, social, and literary systems with suspicion and rejected them. A strong sense of negation is prevalent in their poetry. This negation was not only of the external system but also of traditional values and beliefs. This trend gave rise to movements like ‘Akavita’ (Anti-poetry). 3. Plain-spokenness and Aggressive Language: The poets of this decade rejected the beauty and ornamentation of poetic language. They said what they had to say in a direct, plain language without any embellishments. Their language often seems aggressive, shocking, and sometimes even obscene. The purpose of this was to jolt the reader out of their comfort zone. 4. Realism of Urban and Rural Life: The poetry depicted the stark reality of urban life’s loneliness, alienation, and suffocation, and the misery of rural life. Dhoomil’s poem ‘Mochiram’ (The Cobbler) comments on the absurdities of the entire society from the perspective of a common man. 5. Establishment of the ‘Lagh मानव’ (Common Man): The poetry of this period, instead of focusing on great ideals and heroes, made the common man on the street, his problems, and his will to live its subject matter. This common man is the ‘Lagh मानव’, who is struggling in every situation. The prominent poets of this decade include Sudama Pandey ‘Dhoomil’, Rajkamal Chaudhary, Liladhar Jagudi, and Kailash Vajpeyi . The poetry of the seventh decade gave a new direction and temper to Hindi poetry.

Q8. Write an essay on ‘Drama of the Prasad Era’.

Ans. Introduction: The ‘Prasad Era’ holds the same significance in the history of Hindi drama as Chhayavad does in poetry. With the arrival of Jaishankar Prasad (1889-1937), Hindi drama acquired a new literary and ideological ground. He moved away from the superficial trends of the Bharatendu era and the commercialism of the Parsi stage to write serious, literary, and philosophical plays. Themes and Plots: The greatest feature of Prasad-era drama is its historical plots. Prasad chose plots from India’s glorious past (especially the Maurya and Gupta periods) and tried to find solutions to contemporary problems. His plays like ‘Skandagupta’, ‘Chandragupta’, ‘Dhruvaswamini’ etc., carry messages of national pride, cultural love, and patriotism. Through history, he worked to awaken national consciousness in a subjugated India. In addition to these historical plays, he also wrote symbolic plays like ‘Kamana’ and mythological plays like ‘Janmejay ka Nagayajna’. Characterization: The characters in Prasad’s plays are very vivid and full of internal conflict. They are not just good or bad but are a blend of human virtues and vices. The conflict between duty and personal love in Skandagupta, the pride and renunciation of Chanakya, Dhruvaswamini’s struggle for women’s rights—all these give a new height to characterization. Prasad also presented female characters in a very strong and dignified manner. Language, Style, and Dialogue: The language of Prasad’s plays is highly poetic, Sanskritized, and refined. His dialogues are long, philosophical, and reflective. The inclusion of songs is another feature of his plays, which gives momentum to the narrative and expression to the characters’ emotions. A song like ‘Arun Yeh Madhumay Desh Hamara’ is still extremely popular. The Question of Stageability: Prasad’s plays are often criticized for being more literary and less theatrical. Their complex language, long dialogues, philosophical discussions, and numerous scenes make them difficult to stage. However, it is also true that Prasad was writing for an audience with a serious literary taste, not for the common spectators of the Parsi theatre. With modern technology and skilled direction, successful staging of his plays has been made possible. Conclusion: Although other playwrights like Harikrishna ‘Premi’ and Lakshminarayan Mishra were also active during the Prasad era, the era is primarily identified with Prasad’s work. He elevated Hindi drama from the level of entertainment to the level of serious thought and literary dignity and laid the foundation for a rich dramatic tradition.

Q9. Write short notes on any two of the following topics: (a) Khadiboli Prose (b) Novels of the Dwivedi Era (c) Prayogvad and Nai Kavita (d) Parsi Theatre

Ans. (a) Khadiboli Prose The beginning of modern Hindi literature is linked to the development of Khadiboli prose. Although its early form can be found in works like ‘Gora Badal ki Katha’, its systematic development occurred in the 19th century. The main stages of its development are as follows:

• Early Period: The establishment of Fort William College in Calcutta (1800) played a significant role in the development of Khadiboli prose. Here, Lallu Lal ji wrote ‘Prem Sagar’ and Sadal Mishra wrote ‘Nasiketopakhyan’. In the same period, Insha Allah Khan’s ‘Rani Ketki ki Kahani’ and Munshi Sadasukhlal’s ‘Sukh Sagar’ are also important works.
• Bharatendu Era: Bharatendu Harishchandra gave the right direction and form to Khadiboli prose. He made it popular and universally accepted by using it in journalism, essays, drama, and criticism. In his time, two styles of prose were prevalent—one was Sanskritized Hindi (Raja Lakshman Singh) and the other was Arabic-Persian mixed Urdu (Raja Shivprasad ‘Sitarehind’). Bharatendu adopted a middle path between these two and developed a vibrant and practical prose.
• Dwivedi Era: Acharya Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, through the ‘Saraswati’ magazine, refined, purified, and standardized Khadiboli prose from a grammatical point of view. He emphasized uniformity of spelling, correctness of syntax, and the proper use of punctuation. His efforts led to the creation of the stable and standard form of Khadiboli prose that is prevalent to this day.

Thus, Khadiboli prose traveled a long journey to achieve the honor of being a powerful medium for the expression of modern knowledge, science, and ideas.

(b) Novels of the Dwivedi Era In the Dwivedi Era (1900-1918), the Hindi novel continued its journey from the Bharatendu Era, although it was still in a pre-Premchand stage. The novels of this era were deeply influenced by Acharya Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi’s reformist and moralistic perspective. The main trends of the novels of this period were:

• Entertaining and Magical-Fantasy Novels: The most popular novelist in this stream was Devakinandan Khatri. His novels ‘Chandrakanta’ and ‘Chandrakanta Santati’ inspired even non-Hindi speakers to learn Hindi. These novels contained a wonderful world of imagination, mystery, adventure, magic, and illusion, whose main purpose was to entertain readers.
• Detective Novels: Gopalram Gahmari is considered the pioneer of detective novels in Hindi. Influenced by Arthur Conan Doyle, he wrote many thrilling detective novels like ‘Sar Kati Lash’ (The Headless Corpse) and ‘Jasoos ki Bhool’ (The Detective’s Mistake).
• Social and Reformist Novels: Kishorilal Goswami, Lajjaram Mehta, and others wrote novels based on social problems. These novels raised issues like child marriage, the life of widows, and the purdah system, but their approach was mainly reformist and didactic. These novels lacked artistic quality and realistic portrayal.

Overall, the novels of the Dwivedi era were devoid of realistic and psychological depth. Their main purpose was either entertainment or purposeful preaching. Nevertheless, these novels created a huge readership in Hindi, which built a solid background for a great novelist like Premchand.

(c) Prayogvad and Nai Kavita ‘Prayogvad’ (Experimentalism) and ‘Nai Kavita’ (New Poetry) are two important and interrelated movements in modern Hindi poetry. The relationship between them is one of development and expansion.

• Prayogvad (from 1943): Its beginning is traced to ‘Tar Saptak’ (1943), edited by Agyeya. The main objective of Prayogvad was to conduct new ‘experiments’ at the level of emotion and expression. It opposed both Chhayavadi romanticism and Progressive social realism. Its main features were—excessive individualism, intellectualism, portrayal of frustration and despair, use of new images and symbols, and playing with language. Prayogvad was accused of considering ‘experiment’ as an end in itself, not a means.
• Nai Kavita (from 1951): The beginning of Nai Kavita is considered from the magazine ‘Nai Kavita’ (1954), edited by Jagdish Gupta and Ramswaroop Chaturvedi, although its trends had started appearing earlier. Nai Kavita is a developed and refined form of Prayogvad. It retained the experimentalism of Prayogvad but, considering ‘experiment’ as a means, it emphasized the ‘authenticity of experience’ and the expression of ‘lived reality’ (bhoga hua yatharth). It expressed the lived moments of the individual, the pressure of his environment, and the complexities of modern life with more depth.

In short, the trend that began in 1943 under the name of ‘experiment’ became established as ‘Nai Kavita’ after 1951. If Prayogvad was the ‘path’, then Nai Kavita was the ‘destination’. Poets like Agyeya, Muktibodh, Girijakumar Mathur, and Dharamvir Bharati are prominent figures in both streams.

(d) Parsi Theatre Parsi Theatre was a commercial theatrical movement active in India in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was mainly run by Parsi businessmen from Mumbai and Calcutta, hence its name ‘Parsi Theatre’. Its main characteristics were:

• Commercialism: The main objective of the Parsi stage was not literary excellence, but to entertain the audience and earn money. For this, they used grand sets, attractive costumes, and dazzling lighting.
• Song, Music, and Dance: There was abundant use of songs, music, and dance in between the plays. Dialogues were also often poetic and rhyming to easily attract the audience.
• Subject Matter: The subjects of their plays were taken from mythological stories, historical romances, popular folktales, and crude adaptations of Shakespeare’s plays. ‘Inder Sabha’, ‘Raja Harishchandra’, ‘Yahudi ki Ladki’ were some of their famous plays.
• Language: Their language was neither pure Hindi nor pure Urdu. It was a mixed ‘Hindustani’ language, prevalent among the common people, with an abundance of Urdu words.
• Impact: Although Parsi theatre is considered of very low literary quality, it had a profound impact on Hindi theatre and cinema. It created a pan-Indian audience and established acting as a profession. Early Hindi films borrowed their plot style, songs, music, and melodramatic acting from the Parsi theatre. It was a popular stream that ran parallel to the literary-cultural plays of Jaishankar Prasad.