IGNOU BHDC-103 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU BHDC-103 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

IGNOU BHDC-103 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in English

Q1. Translate and explain any three of the following stanzas with context: (a) काहे को ब्याही बिदेस रे, लखि बाबुल मोरे!… (b) संतो भाई आई ग्यांन की आँधी रे… (c) ईसन के ईस, महाराजन के महाराज… (d) दृग उरझत, टूटत कुटुम… / नहिं परागु, नहिं मधुर मधु… (e) मानुष हों तो वहीं रसखानि…

Ans. (Examinees are required to explain any three stanzas. Model answers for all five are provided here.)

(a) काहे को ब्याही बिदेस रे… (Why did you marry me off to a foreign land…) Context: These lines are from a famous song composed by the medieval poet Amir Khusro . Khusro is considered the first poet of ‘Hindavi’ (an early form of modern Hindi/Urdu). He expressed the emotions of common people in their own language. This particular song is a ‘Bidaai Geet’ (farewell song), where a newly-wed daughter expresses her sorrow to her father (Babul).

Explanation: The daughter questions her father, “O my father! Why did you marry me off to a foreign land?” She compares herself to transient and temporary symbols to express the pain of her departure. She says, “O my father! I am like the cuckoo (koel) in your gardens, which sings for a while and then flies away. I will go from house to house, cooing, but my permanent home is no longer here.” She continues, “I am like the sparrow (chidiya) in your fields, which pecks at the grains and then flies away.” Through the symbols of the ‘cuckoo’ and ‘sparrow’, the transient nature of a daughter’s life in her paternal home and the feeling of being a stranger are poignantly expressed. The central emotion of these lines is the pain of becoming a stranger in one’s own home after marriage and the sorrow of going to a new, unknown ‘foreign land’ (bides). Khusro’s language is extremely simple, natural, and close to folk life, touching the heart directly.

(b) संतो भाई आई ग्यांन की आँधी रे… (O saintly brothers, a storm of knowledge has arrived…) Context: This verse is composed by the prominent poet of the Nirgun Bhakti (devotion to a formless God) tradition’s Gyanshrayi (path of knowledge) branch, Sant Kabir Das . In this verse, Kabir uses a powerful metaphor to describe the arrival of knowledge and its effects. He explains how the storm of knowledge destroys all the delusions and impurities of the mind.

Explanation: Kabir says, “O saintly brothers! A storm of knowledge has arrived within me.” Due to the effect of this storm, the thatched screen (tati) of delusion has been completely blown away, and the rope of Maya (illusion) could not keep it tied. The two pillars of duality (duchite) have fallen, and the main beam (balenda) of attachment (moh) has broken. After this, the roof (chhan) of craving (trisna), which lay upon the house of the body, has also fallen, and the pots of evil-mindedness (durmati) kept beneath it have shattered. Kabir says that after this storm of knowledge, the rain of love and devotion that fell has completely drenched your devotee (i.e., me). In the end, Kabir says that when the sun (bhanu) of knowledge, which I have now recognized, arose, my mind became illuminated (pragasa). The metaphor of the ‘storm’ in this verse is extremely apt for depicting the revolutionary and purifying effect of knowledge.

(c) ईसन के ईस, महाराजन के महाराज… (Lord of lords, King of kings…) Context: This verse is quoted from ‘Vinaypatrika’, composed by the foremost poet of the Sagun Bhakti (devotion to a God with form) tradition’s Ram-Bhakti branch, Goswami Tulsidas . In this, Tulsidas glorifies the majesty of his deity, Lord Shri Ram, extolling his supremacy and compassion.

Explanation: Tulsidas says, “O Lord! You are the God of gods, the King of kings, the Deity of deities, and the very life of life itself (i.e., the basis of existence).” He further says that you are the master of time (Kaal), the essence of the great elements (Mahabhutas), the dispenser of the fruits of actions (Karma), and the ultimate cause of all causes (Nidan). He who is inaccessible even to the Vedas and scriptures (Nigam ko agam) is easily accessible (sugam) to a humble servant like Tulsidas. Despite being so great, you are an ocean of virtue and decorum (seelsindhu) and a treasure of compassion (karunanidhan). Your glory is infinite, with no beginning or end, and cannot be captured in words. In the end, Tulsidas says, “O Master! Despite possessing such great power (badi saahabi) and majesty, you are extremely vigilant (bade saavdhaan) in protecting your devotees and upholding righteousness.” These lines show a wonderful blend of ‘dasya bhava’ (servitude) devotion and the grand yet compassionate form of Shri Ram.

(d) दृग उरझत, टूटत कुटुम… / नहिं परागु, नहिं मधुर मधु… (Eyes entangle, families break… / Neither pollen, nor sweet honey…) Context: Both these couplets (dohas) are from ‘Bihari Satsai’, composed by the representative poet of the Riti-Siddha school of Ritikaal, Bihari Lal . Bihari is famous for his art of ‘filling an ocean in a pitcher’ (saying a lot in few words). The first doha describes the peculiar nature of love, while the second one, through allegory (anyokti), reminds King Jai Singh of his duties.

Explanation (First Doha): Describing a new and strange custom of love, the poet says that the process of love is very unique. In it, the eyes of the hero and heroine get entangled (drig urajhat), but it is their families that break (tootat kutum). The hearts of the clever lovers unite (jurat chatur-chit preeti), but a knot of jealousy is tied in the hearts of the malicious (parati ganthi durjan-hiyai). Bihari exclaims, “O God! What a new custom of love this is,” where the action takes place somewhere, and its reaction occurs elsewhere. This doha expresses the social impact of love with great subtlety and conciseness.

Explanation (Second Doha): This is a famous allegorical couplet. Addressing King Jai Singh through the metaphor of a bee (ali), the poet says, “O bee! The bud you are so infatuated with right now has neither pollen, nor sweet honey, nor has it fully bloomed. If you are so entangled in this unopened bud now, what will be your condition (hawaal) when it blossoms into a full flower?” Here, ‘ali’ (bee) symbolizes King Jai Singh, ‘kali’ (bud) his young new queen, and ‘pollen’ and ‘honey’ symbolize the duties and pleasures of statecraft. Bihari is cautioning the king not to get so engrossed in his love for his young queen that he forgets his royal duties (Raj-dharma).

(e) मानुष हों तो वहीं रसखानि… (If I were to be a human, Raskhan says…) Context: This savaiya is composed by the Krishna-devotee poet of the Bhakti period, Raskhan . Raskhan’s exclusive love for Krishna and his divine land, Braj, is reflected throughout his poetry. In this savaiya, the poet expresses his strong desire to attain the company of Brajbhumi in every birth and in every form.

Explanation: Expressing his fervent wish, Raskhan says, “O Lord! If I am born as a human in my next life, my only wish is to live among the cowherds of Braj and Gokul village.” He says, “If I am born as an animal, over which I have no control, I wish to graze among the cows (dhenu) of Nanda Baba.” He further says, “If I become a stone (pahan), let me be a part of that same Govardhan Hill which you lifted on your finger to protect the people of Braj from the wrath of Indra (Purandar-dharan).” And finally, “If I become a bird (khag), let my abode be on the branches of the Kadamba trees on the banks of the Yamuna (Kalindi) river,” because it was under these trees that Krishna performed his divine plays. This savaiya expresses Raskhan’s deep attachment and devotion to every single particle of Brajbhumi.

Q2. “Meera Bai’s devotion is experiential.” Express your views on this statement.

Ans. This statement, that Meera Bai’s devotion is experiential , is entirely true. Her devotion was not based on scriptural knowledge, a guru’s teachings, or tradition, but on her personal, deep, and intense experiences. Her verses are a living saga of her life’s struggles, social persecution, and unwavering love for Krishna. The following arguments can be made in favor of Meera’s devotion being experiential:

• Primacy of Personal Feeling: For Meera, Krishna was not just a deity to be worshipped, but her beloved, her husband, and her everything. She established a personal relationship with Krishna, which she termed ‘Madhurya Bhava’ (devotion of a lover). The pain of separation (‘darad ki maari ban-ban dolun’ – Stricken with pain, I wander from forest to forest) and the ecstasy of union (‘payo ji maine ram ratan dhan payo’ – I have found the jewel-like wealth of God’s name) expressed in her padas (verses) are born of her personal experience.
• Rebellion Against Social Norms: Meera was a queen, but for the sake of her devotion to Krishna, she broke all social and familial bonds. She disregarded public shame (lok-laaj), the honor of her clan, and the commands of her in-laws. Incidents like drinking the ‘cup of poison’ symbolize the real obstacles she faced on her devotional path and her firm resolve. This struggle makes her poetry not theoretical, but a lived reality.
• Knowledge Born from Experience: Meera’s devotion also contains knowledge and renunciation, but it is not dry and logical like Kabir’s. Her renunciation stems from her experience of the world’s futility. When she says, “Mere to Giridhar Gopal, doosro na koi” (For me, there is only Giridhar Gopal, no one else), it is not just a poetic line but the essence of her lifelong experiences.
• Direct Conversational Style: Meera’s verses are often in the style of a direct conversation with Krishna. She complains to him, chides him, coaxes him, and professes her love. This style is only possible with a God one has experienced personally, not one described by others.

In conclusion, Meera Bai’s devotion did not come from books but arose from the depths of her heart. Every verse of hers is a document of her tears, her pain, her joy, and her surrender, which proves her devotion to be completely

experiential

and authentic.

Q3. Discuss Raskhan’s poetic work as a Krishna devotee poet.

Ans. Raskhan (Syed Ibrahim) holds a unique place among the Krishna-devotee poets of the Bhakti period, as he transcended the boundaries of his caste and religion to display an unparalleled love and devotion for Krishna. His poetic work as a Krishna devotee poet is extremely significant and influential. Nature of Krishna Devotion: Raskhan’s devotion is primarily towards the Sagun-Sakar (with form and attributes) Krishna. He is captivated by Krishna’s childhood form, adolescent form, and his enchanting ‘leelas’ (divine plays). His devotion is a beautiful blend of ‘Madhurya’ (lover’s sentiment) and ‘Sakhya’ (friendly sentiment) bhavas. He considers Krishna his friend, companion, and everything. Love for Brajbhumi: Raskhan’s devotion to Krishna is inseparable from his deep love for the land of Braj. For him, Krishna and Braj are synonymous. He wishes to be born in Braj in every life, regardless of the form (‘Manush hon to wahi Raskhan…’). The Yamuna river, Kadamba trees, Govardhan hill, and the cowherds of Gokul are not just a backdrop in his poetry but integral parts of his devotion. Poetic Beauty and Language: Raskhan primarily used the Savaiya and Kavitta meters to express his emotions, in which he achieved phenomenal success. His language is a lyrical, sweet, and fluent Braj Bhasha . He made his poetry accessible to the masses by using commonly spoken words and idioms with ease. The use of literary embellishments (alankars) in his poetry is natural and enhances the emotions. Symbol of Communal Harmony: His deep devotion to Krishna, despite being a Muslim, makes him a unique symbol of communal harmony. His works, ‘Sujan Raskhan’ and ‘Premvatika’, became equally popular among both Hindu and Muslim communities. Bharatendu Harishchandra rightly said of him, “One would sacrifice millions of Hindus for such a Muslim devotee of Hari (God).” In conclusion, Raskhan’s poetic work is an expression of a natural, innocent, and intense love for Krishna. His poetry is an excellent example of emotional intensity, linguistic sweetness, and deep attachment to Braj, which secures him a special place in the tradition of Krishna-bhakti poetry.

Q4. Underline the devotional sentiment of Jayasi.

Ans. Malik Muhammad Jayasi is the representative poet of the Premashrayi (or Sufi) branch of the Nirgun (formless) school of Bhakti poetry. The basis of his devotional sentiment is ‘love’ (prem), through which he shows the path to attaining God. His devotional sentiment can be best understood through his epic, ‘Padmavat’. The main features of Jayasi’s devotional sentiment are as follows:

• Primacy of the Element of Love: The core of Jayasi’s devotion is love. He believes that God cannot be attained through knowledge or yoga, but only through intense love and by enduring the pain of separation. According to him, ‘love’ is the force that unites the soul (sadhak) with the divine (Parmatma).
• Symbolism and Allegory: Jayasi presented his devotional feelings in a symbolic form through a worldly love story. In ‘Padmavat’, King Ratansen is a symbol of the ‘soul’ or ‘seeker’, Queen Padmavati symbolizes the ‘divine’ or ‘pure intellect’, the parrot Hiraman represents the ‘guru’, and Alauddin symbolizes ‘maya’ or ‘Satan’. In this way, he alludes to divine love (Ishq-e-Haqiqi) through worldly love (Ishq-e-Majazi).
• Importance of Separation (Virah): In Sufi practice, separation is considered an essential step towards attaining God. In Jayasi’s poetry, the description of separation (especially Nagmati’s separation) is extremely poignant and profound. This separation is not just worldly pain but a symbol of the soul’s yearning for the divine, which purifies the seeker’s mind and makes him worthy of union with God.
• Synthesis of Indian and Sufi Traditions: In his devotional expression, Jayasi created a wonderful synthesis of Indian folk tales, characters, and philosophical concepts (like Hatha Yoga) with Islamic Sufi thought. He adopted the ‘Masnavi’ style, but the story, characters, and setting are entirely Indian. This synthesis gives his devotion a distinct Indian character.
• Importance of the Guru: Like in Sufi practice, Jayasi also acknowledges the importance of a guru on the path to God-realization. In ‘Padmavat’, the parrot Hiraman plays the role of the guru who shows Ratansen the path to Padmavati (the divine).

Thus, Jayasi’s devotional sentiment is love-centric, symbolic, separation-dominant, and syncretic, which gives him a unique place in the Nirgun Bhakti tradition.

Q5. Underline the presence of Shringar (romantic sentiment) in Surdas’s devotion.

Ans. Surdas, the foremost poet of the Krishna-Bhakti branch of the Bhakti period, is called the ‘Emperor of Vatsalya Ras’ (parental affection), but the romantic sentiment (Shringar Ras) also has a very deep and extensive presence in his devotion. Surdas’s depiction of Shringar is an integral part of his devotional sentiment, and it transcends worldly romance to acquire a divine and celestial form. The presence of Shringar in Surdas’s devotion can be seen in the following forms:

• Sanyog Shringar (Love in Union): Surdas has painted extremely vivid and captivating pictures of Radha-Krishna’s union, their playful activities (keli-krida), and loving conversations. He has wonderfully described Sanyog Shringar in the contexts of the Rasleela of Krishna and the Gopis, their sports on the banks of the Yamuna, and the Daan-leela. This Shringar is restrained, devotional, and full of bliss. There is not the slightest trace of crudeness or obscenity. For example, the verse “Bujhat Syam kaun tu gori” (Shyam asks, “Who are you, fair maiden?”) presents a natural and sweet depiction of Krishna and Radha’s first meeting.
• Viyog (Vipralambh) Shringar (Love in Separation): The most excellent form of Shringar in Surdas’s devotion is seen in the ‘Bhramargeet’ episode, where he reaches the pinnacle of Viyog Shringar. The poignant, psychological, and artistic depiction of the Gopis’ pain of separation after Krishna’s departure to Mathura is unparalleled. The Gopis refute Uddhav’s sermon of knowledge-based yoga with their logic and the intensity of their love. Their separation is not just physical but emotional and spiritual. Lines like “Nisidin barsat nain hamare” (Our eyes rain day and night) show the intensity of their separation.
• A Touch of Shringar in Vatsalya: Although Vatsalya is an independent sentiment, sometimes a slight glimpse of Shringar can be found even in Surdas’s descriptions of childhood. The enchantment of Yashoda and the Gopis with the charming image of child Krishna and his mischievous acts is, in a way, a form of attraction towards his divine beauty, which has a gentle touch of Shringar.

In conclusion, in Surdas’s devotion, Shringar is a means, not an end. His depiction of romance is an integral part of Krishna’s divine plays, which takes the reader or listener from the worldly to the divine. It is Shringar immersed in the juice of devotion (Bhakti Ras), which makes Surdas the ‘crown jewel’ of Hindi literature.

Q6. Throw light on the depiction of folk life in the poetry of Amir Khusro.

Ans. To see Amir Khusro (13th-14th century) merely as a court poet is an injustice to his multifaceted personality. He was the first poet to make the life of the common people, their language, and their emotions the subject of his poetry, alongside the high tradition of Persian. A very lively and authentic depiction of folk life is found in his poetry. The various colors of folk life in Khusro’s poetry are as follows:

• Use of a Vernacular Language: For the first time, Khusro used ‘Hindavi’ (an early form of Khari Boli) as a medium of literary expression alongside Persian. He understood that to reach the masses, it was necessary to use their own language. In this language, he composed songs, riddles, mukris, and couplets that are still alive in folk tradition today.
• Depiction of Folk Psychology: Khusro expressed the joys and sorrows, hopes and despairs, and everyday life experiences of the common man with great ease. His famous ‘Bidaai Geet’ (“Kahe ko byahi bides”) is a poignant portrayal of the anguish in the hearts of a daughter and her father at the time of her farewell, which is an integral part of Indian folk life.
• Creation of Folk Poetic Forms: Khusro either created or popularized many poetic forms that were directly connected to folk life:
  • Paheli (Riddles): Riddles like ‘Ek thaal moti se bhara, sabke sir par aundha dhara’ (A plate full of pearls, placed upside down on everyone’s head – The Sky) were not just for entertainment but also tested one’s wit.
  • Mukri (Denials): This involves a playful style of first stating something and then denying it, e.g., ‘He comes to me at night, and leaves for his home at dawn… O friend, is it my beloved (sajan)? No friend, it’s a star (tara).’
  • Qawwali: Khusro is considered the father of Qawwali, which remains a popular form of singing at Sufi shrines and social gatherings even today.
• Social and Cultural Depiction: His poetry also depicts the contemporary society, customs, festivals (like Basant), and interpersonal relationships. He was a symbol of Hindu-Muslim cultural synthesis, and his poetry is a beautiful example of this ‘Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb’ (composite culture).

Thus, Amir Khusro brought literature out from the high walls of the court and into the courtyards of the common people. His poetry is a living document of folk culture, folk language, and the folk mind.

Q7. Throw light on the social consciousness of Kabir.

Ans. Sant Kabir Das was not just a devotional poet but also a sharp social reformer and a revolutionary thinker of his time. His social consciousness was extremely deep and trenchant. He fearlessly attacked the hypocrisy, superstition, religious fanaticism, and social inequality prevalent in the society of his day. The main points of Kabir’s social consciousness are as follows:

• Opposition to Religious Hypocrisy: Kabir vehemently opposed the external rituals and ceremonies in both Hinduism and Islam. He declared Hindu idol worship, pilgrimages, and chanting on beads as meaningless (‘Pahan puje Hari milein, to main pujun pahar’ – If God is found by worshipping stones, I would worship a mountain). Similarly, he sharply satirized Muslim practices of fasting, prayer, and the call to prayer (azaan) (‘Kankar pathar jori ke, masjid layi banay. Ta chadhi mulla baang de, kya bahra hua Khudaay?’ – By joining stones and pebbles, a mosque was built. The Mulla climbs it to give the call; has God gone deaf?).
• Denunciation of the Caste System: Kabir strongly condemned the feeling of high and low based on birth and the discrimination of the caste system. He himself belonged to the weaver (julaha) caste and repeatedly conveyed the message that all human beings are equal in the eyes of God. He said, “Jaati-paanti puchhe nahin koi, Hari ko bhaje so Hari ka hoi” (No one should ask about caste or creed; whoever worships God belongs to God).
• Humanistic Approach: The foundation of Kabir’s consciousness was humanism. He gave importance to man above religion and caste. For him, the greatest religion was love, good conduct, and true devotion. He emphasized social unity and harmony.
• Emphasis on Truth and Experience: Kabir did not give importance to scriptural knowledge or what was written in books but emphasized direct experience and truth (‘aankhin dekhi’). He inspired people not to believe what others said but to seek the truth for themselves.
• Fearless and Blunt Personality: Kabir’s social consciousness was linked to his blunt and carefree nature. He was not afraid of any king or authority and directly attacked the evils of society without any pretense. His language (‘Sadhukkadi’) was also direct, simple, and hard-hitting, befitting this revolutionary consciousness.

In conclusion, Kabir’s social consciousness was far ahead of his time. He envisioned a society free from hypocrisy, discrimination, and superstition, where a person is judged by their actions, not by their birth. That is why Acharya Hazariprasad Dwivedi called him the ‘dictator of language’.

Q8. Throw light on the poetic beauty of Rahim.

Ans. Abdurrahim Khan-i-Khana, renowned as ‘Rahim’, is a unique gem of medieval Hindi literature. He was one of Akbar’s ‘Navratnas’ (nine jewels), a skilled general and administrator, and at the same time, a generous, sagacious, and emotional poet. The beauty of his poetry lies in the wonderful synthesis of its subject matter, language style, and philosophy of life. The main elements of Rahim’s poetic beauty are:

• Ethics and Practicality: The greatest attraction of Rahim’s poetry is his ethical couplets (dohas). These couplets are a treasure trove of wisdom gained from diverse life experiences. Whatever he wrote on friendship, love, altruism, the importance of time, and human behavior is as relevant today as it was then. For example, “Rahiman dhaga prem ka, mat todo chatkay. Toote se phir na jude, jude gaanth pari jaay” (Rahim says, do not snap the thread of love. Once broken, it cannot be joined again; if it is, a knot remains). This doha explains the fragility of human relationships with utmost simplicity.
• Wonderful Synthesis of Languages: Rahim composed mainly in Braj Bhasha and Awadhi , but words from Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Sanskrit are also seamlessly blended into his language. He used language according to the subject. In ‘Barvai Nayika Bhed’, he used rustic Awadhi, while in his dohas, he used lyrical Braj Bhasha. This linguistic synthesis lends a unique beauty to his poetry.
• Simple and Effective Imagery: Rahim presents his deepest thoughts through very simple examples and images drawn from folk life. He uses common images like watermelons, potter’s vessels, thread, and water to convey profound philosophical ideas, which directly enter the reader’s heart.
• Breadth of Emotions: Rahim’s poetry is not limited to ethics alone. He also gave space to devotion (Krishna-bhakti), romance (shringar), and personal anguish in his poetry. His verses on Krishna devotion are extremely emotional. Due to the ups and downs of his life, a sense of pain and detachment is also reflected in his poetry, which makes it even more poignant.
• Excellence in Lyrical Style: Rahim mainly composed in the lyrical (muktaka) style, especially in the doha, soratha, and barvai meters. Each verse is complete and independent in its meaning. He was as skilled as Bihari in the art of saying more in fewer words (ocean in a pitcher).

In short, the poetic beauty of Rahim lies in his spontaneity, simplicity, experiential wisdom, and liberal humanist perspective, which make him an important and popular poet of the medieval period.

Q9. Write short notes on any two of the following: (a) Bhakti (Devotion) in Vidyapati’s poetry (b) Lokmangal (Public Welfare) in Tulsidas’s poetry (c) Nature in Nazeer Akbarabadi’s poetry (d) Love in Ghananand’s poetry

Ans. (Examinees are required to write notes on any two. Model notes for all four are provided here.)

(a) Bhakti (Devotion) in Vidyapati’s poetry The nature of devotion in the poetry of Vidyapati (14th-15th century) has been highly controversial. One group of scholars considers him a purely romantic (shringari) poet, while another sees him as a devotional (bhakt) poet, and some see him as a synthesis of both. In his ‘Padavali’, Vidyapati has depicted the love-play of Radha and Krishna in a very lyrical and captivating manner. His verses contain highly intoxicating and sensual descriptions of Radha and Krishna’s adolescence, physical beauty, union, and separation. This depiction is so vivid and worldly that many critics consider it purely romantic poetry, arguing that Vidyapati, in the tradition of Jaydev’s ‘Gitagovinda’, merely used the names of Radha and Krishna to sing of secular love. On the other hand, scholars who consider him a devotee argue that this was the very form of ‘madhurya bhava’ (lover’s devotion) towards God in the medieval period. Radha and Krishna are symbols of the soul and the divine, respectively, and their romantic gestures allude to spiritual union. Saints like Chaitanya Mahaprabhu would become ecstatic while singing Vidyapati’s verses, which testifies to the devotional nature of these poems. In conclusion, it can be said that devotion and romance are so intertwined in Vidyapati’s poetry that it is difficult to separate them. His poetry begins with divine praise, wanders into worldly romance, and ultimately culminates in devotion. He is fundamentally a poet of romance, whose romanticism is wrapped in a cloak of devotion.

(b) Lokmangal (Public Welfare) in Tulsidas’s poetry Acharya Ramchandra Shukla has called Tulsidas the poet of ‘the pursuit of public welfare’ (Lokmangal ki Sadhana), which is the central criterion for evaluating his poetry. Lokmangal means the welfare of the entire society. Tulsidas’s poetry, especially ‘Ramcharitmanas’, was not written merely for devotion or poetic flourish, but with the aim of establishing an ideal society. The spirit of Lokmangal in Tulsidas’s poetry is expressed in the following ways:

• Creation of Ideal Characters: Tulsidas presented Ram as the ideal man of principles (Maryada Purushottam), Sita as the ideal wife, Bharat as the ideal brother, and Hanuman as the ideal servant, thereby setting imitable ideals before society.
• A Grand Effort of Synthesis: Tulsidas attempted to synthesize the various social, philosophical, and religious differences of his time (e.g., Sagun-Nirgun, Shaivism-Vaishnavism, knowledge-devotion). His goal was to create a society free of conflict.
• Familial and Social Propriety: ‘Ramcharitmanas’ presents the concept of an ideal family and an ideal state (Ramrajya). It establishes ideal relationships between father-son, brother-brother, husband-wife, and king-subject, which make society orderly and happy.
• Balance of Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha: Tulsidas’s Lokmangal establishes a balance among these four aims of human life. He allows the enjoyment of wealth (Artha) and desire (Kama) while keeping righteousness (Dharma) at the center, which ultimately paves the way for liberation (Moksha).

Thus, Tulsidas’s poetry is imbued more with the spirit of social welfare and ‘the good of all’ (sarvajan hitay) than with individual salvation. His Ramrajya is a dream of an ideal welfare state free from exploitation and injustice.

(c) Nature in Nazeer Akbarabadi’s poetry Nazeer Akbarabadi (18th-19th century) is called ‘the people’s poet’ or ‘the father of Nazm’. In his poetry, nature does not appear as a philosophical symbol or as a stimulant (uddipan vibhav), but as a living and joyous part of folk life. In Nazeer’s view, nature and human life are intertwined. The characteristics of nature depiction in his poetry are:

• Vivid Description of Seasons: Nazeer has given extremely lively descriptions of seasons like the monsoon, winter, and summer. His poem ‘Barsaat ki Baharein’ (The Splendors of Monsoon) contains a realistic depiction of the joy of the rainy season, the mud, slipping people, and the greenery of nature. This depiction is not classical but experiential.
• Nature linked to Festivals: Nazeer is a poet of festivals like Holi, Diwali, and Eid. While describing these festivals, he also beautifully describes the natural splendor of that season. With the colors of Holi, the nature of spring also becomes colorful.
• Depiction of Common Natural Elements: Nazeer’s attention is not on royal gardens but on natural objects connected to the life of the common man. He also writes poems on subjects like ‘Kakdi’ (cucumber), ‘Tarbooz’ (watermelon), ‘Gilhari’ (squirrel), and ‘Reechh’ (bear). In his poems like ‘Aadminama’ and ‘Banjaranaama’, nature also appears as a symbol of the transience of human life.

In short, Nazeer sees nature through the eyes of the common man. For him, nature is synonymous with joy, celebration, and the spontaneity of life. His depiction of nature is realistic, detailed, and saturated with the colors of folk life.

(d) Love in Ghananand’s poetry Ghananand is the greatest poet of the Ritimukta (free from conventions) school of Ritikaal. His love is not based on classical conventions, a display of embellishments, or the classification of heroes and heroines like that of the Ritibaddha poets. Ghananand’s love is a product of his personal, lived reality. It originates from his one-sided devotion to a dancer named Sujan and, after being tempered in the fire of separation, reaches celestial heights. The characteristics of love in Ghananand’s poetry are:

• Intensity and Truthfulness of Feeling: Ghananand does not weep with ‘rented tears’. His pain is his own. Therefore, the intensity, depth, and poignancy in his descriptions of separation are rare elsewhere. He writes, “Tum kaun dhon paati padhe ho lala, man lehu pai dehu chhatank nahin” (What lesson have you learned, O beloved, that you take a whole heart but give not even a fraction in return?).
• One-sided and Exclusive Nature of Love: Ghananand’s love is exclusive. Even after being rejected by Sujan, his love does not diminish; rather, it deepens. His worldly beloved ‘Sujan’ gradually becomes a symbol of the ‘Sujan’ (the all-knowing) Krishna, and his love transcends from the worldly to the divine.
• Primacy of Separation (Virah): Ghananand is primarily a poet of separation. Moments of union are very few in his poetry. The touchstone of love is separation itself. This separation is the source of his creativity. There is a sublimity in his pain that moves the reader as well.
• Spontaneous Expression: Being free from conventions, Ghananand expressed his feelings without any pretense or artificiality. His language is metaphorical and bends itself according to the emotions. His love is introverted and subjective.

Hence, Ghananand’s love is the poetry of the ‘pain of love’ (prem ki peer), which is unique in Hindi literature due to the truthfulness of its feeling, the depth of its separation, and the spontaneity of its expression.