IGNOU BHDC-107 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU BHDC-107 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

IGNOU BHDC-107 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in English

Q1. Explain Plato’s views on poetry.

Ans. Plato, the progenitor of Western poetics, formulated his views on poetry as an integral part of his overall philosophical thought. His philosophy is Idealistic, positing that the ‘World of Ideas’ is the only ultimate reality. This physical world is merely an imitation of that world of ideas, and poetry, in turn, imitates this physical world. Thus, according to Plato, poetry is ‘thrice removed from reality’ and is therefore false. Plato presented his views on poetry primarily in his work, ‘The Republic’ . His main objections to poetry are as follows:

• Theory of Imitation (Mimesis): According to Plato, art and poetry are based on imitation. Since they imitate a world that is already unreal, they are even further removed from the truth. A carpenter imitates the ‘Idea’ of a bed created by God to make a physical bed, and a poet imitates that physical bed to write a poem. Hence, the poet’s creation is three times removed from the truth.
• Arousal of Emotions: Plato believed that poetry, instead of awakening man’s reason, appeals to his passions and emotions. This weakens an individual’s character, making them uncontrolled and imbalanced. This situation is harmful to the citizens of an Ideal Republic .
• Charge of Immorality: According to Plato, poets often depict gods as immoral, jealous, and deceitful, which has a negative influence on society, especially the youth.

For these reasons, Plato advocated for the banishment of poets from his ideal state. Although his perspective on poetry was extremely harsh, he was the first to make poetry a subject of systematic philosophical inquiry, which paved the way for his disciple, Aristotle. His theory of poetry was driven by a utilitarian and moralistic viewpoint.

Q2. What is Shankuka’s Anumitivada? Explain.

Ans. Acharya Shankuka is the second major commentator on Bharata Muni’s famous Rasa Sutra (“Vibhavanubhavavyabhicharisamyogadrasanishpattih”). His theory is known as ‘Anumitivada’ (Theory of Inference), which is based on the Nyaya school of philosophy. In contrast to Bhatt Lollata’s ‘Utpattivada’ (Theory of Origination), Shankuka posits that Rasa is not ‘produced’ in the spectator but is ‘inferred’ (anumiti). The key points of Shankuka’s Anumitivada are:

• Locus of Rasa: According to Shankuka, Rasa primarily resides in the original character (Anukarya), such as historical figures like Rama, Dushyanta, etc. On stage, the actor (Nata) imitates that character. The spectator, upon observing the actor’s skillful performance (Vibhava, Anubhava, etc.), infers that this is the original character.
• Chitra-Turanga-Nyaya: To clarify his point, Shankuka used the analogy of ‘Chitra-Turanga-Nyaya’ (the logic of the painted horse). Just as a person looking at a painted horse neither considers it a real horse nor an unreal one, nor is it an illusion of a horse, but rather identifies it as ‘a picture of a horse’, similarly, the spectator perceives the actor neither as the real Rama nor as a fake. He considers him ‘Rama in the act of performing’ and infers his emotions.
• Nature of Inference: This inference is different from ordinary worldly inference. It is a unique, extraordinary, and wonderful kind of inference that provides the spectator with a special kind of pleasure (Rasa). The spectator knows that the actor is merely performing, yet he is moved by the performance to infer the dominant emotion (Sthayi Bhava), and this inferred emotion is transformed into Rasa.

In essence, Shankuka’s Anumitivada establishes that the spectator infers the

dominant emotion

of the original character based on the actor’s performance, and it is through this process of inference that he experiences Rasa. This theory is a significant link in the discourse on Rasa, explaining its realization on a psychological and logical basis.

Q3. Discuss the elements hostile to the sublime.

Ans. The Greek rhetorician Longinus, in his work ‘Peri Hupsous’ (On the Sublime) , introduced the concept of the ‘Sublime’, which is the quality that makes literature great. While he described the five main sources of the sublime, he also identified the faults that act as obstacles to achieving it. These are known as the elements hostile to the sublime . According to Longinus, these faults manifest at both stylistic and emotional levels, destroying the impact of a work. The major elements hostile to the sublime are as follows:

1. Turgidity (Bombast): This is the greatest fault of style. When a writer uses grand, heavy, and pompous words for a small or trivial subject, it becomes ridiculous. It has the appearance of grandeur but lacks depth. It is like putting a large mask on a small body.
2. Puerility: This means childishness or presenting ideas in a foolish manner. When a writer adopts an overly artificial, academic, and immature style, the work becomes shallow instead of serious. This fault destroys the dignity of the subject.
3. Parenthyrsus (False Emotion): This is a fault related to emotion. When there is no need for emotion in a context, or only a little is required, and the writer displays uncontrolled, intense, and dramatic emotions, it is called Parenthyrsus. It is a false or misplaced passion that repels the reader instead of affecting them.

In addition to these, Longinus also considered faults at the level of vocabulary, such as

Vulgarity

, and defects in rhythm as hindrances to the sublime. According to him, the root cause of all these faults is

poverty of conception

and a lack of genuine feeling. Where there are no great thoughts and true emotion, the creation of the sublime is impossible.

Q4. Express your views on the concept, nature, and form of poetic language.

Ans. Poetic language is that special, refined, and creative form of ordinary or practical language whose purpose is not merely to inform or exchange ideas, but to awaken a sense of beauty, emotion, and imagination in the reader or listener. It is the artistic use of language. Concept: The concept of poetic language is based on the idea that the poet finds ordinary language inadequate to express his experiences, sensations, and feelings as they are. He breaks, bends, and embellishes language in a new way so that it can carry his specific meaning. In this process, language transcends its literal meaning (denotation) to acquire suggestive (connotation) and evocative (implication) meanings. This is the ‘specialization’ of language. Nature and Form: The nature and form of poetic language are constituted by the following elements:

• Emotiveness: The core quality of poetic language is emotiveness. It directly impacts the reader’s emotions, not their logic or reason. I.A. Richards called this the ‘Emotive’ use of language, distinct from the scientific use.
• Imagery: Poetic language creates sensory images (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, etc.) in the reader’s mind through words. These images make the experience concrete and vivid.
• Symbolism and Connotation: Words are used in special senses, different from their common meanings. The poet uses symbols and connotations to pack deep and broad meanings into few words.
• Sound-Beauty and Rhythm: Sound has special significance in poetic language. The repetition of sounds (alliteration), well-structured arrangement of words, and the use of meter or rhythm create a musicality in the language that enhances its beauty and impact.
• Use of Figures of Speech: The use of figures of speech like simile, metaphor, and paradox distinguishes poetic language from ordinary statements, adding wonder and beauty. It makes the expression more effective and memorable.

In short, poetic language is a transformed, artistic, and multi-layered form of ordinary language that, through its special tools (imagery, symbols, rhythm, figures of speech), can make even an ordinary experience extraordinary and beautiful. Its form is not static but changes with the era and the poet.

Q5. What do you understand by Expressionism? Discuss its various dimensions.

Ans. Expressionism is a major 20th-century artistic theory, pioneered by the Italian philosopher Benedetto Croce . This theory focuses not on the object or the external world, but on the artist’s inner intuition and mental process. Croce’s fundamental formula is – ‘Intuition is Expression’ . According to Croce, the human spirit has four major activities: two theoretical and two practical. The theoretical activities are (1) Intuition and (2) Logic. Art is related to the first activity, intuition. Intuition is the internal knowledge of an object received through the senses. When an intuition becomes perfectly clear in the artist’s mind, that itself is its ‘expression’. This is a purely mental process. The Various Dimensions of Expressionism:

1. Art as an Internal Process: For Croce, the work of art is not created in a physical object (like a poem on paper or a painting on canvas) but is completed within the artist’s mind. Externalization is merely a practical measure to communicate that internal expression to others; it has no direct connection to art itself.
2. Inseparability of Intuition and Expression: According to Croce, there is no difference between these two. What is intuition, is expression. If an image is clear in the mind, it has been expressed. What we cannot say, we do not truly know.
3. Autonomy of Art: Expressionism considers art to be independent of external criteria like morality, utility, logic, and pleasure. The purpose of art is art itself. It neither provides moral instruction nor logical knowledge. It is an autonomous spiritual activity.
4. Unity of Form and Content: Since expression is an indivisible mental process, the subject (content) and the manner of its telling (form) cannot be separated. What is expressed, as it is expressed, is the art.
5. Rejection of Classification: Croce does not believe in the various genres of art (like epic, lyric) or classical rules, because every expression is unique and indivisible in itself.

In essence, Expressionism regards art as a spiritual and self-sufficient activity where the artist’s inner intuition is everything. By emphasizing the internal and mental aspects of art over its external form, it gave a new direction to criticism.

Q6. What do you understand by ‘Impersonality of Sensation’? Express your views.

Ans. ‘Impersonality of Sensation’ is essentially an aspect of the famous poet and critic T.S. Eliot’s ‘Theory of Impersonality’ . This theory was a reaction against the Romantic view of poetry, which held that poetry is a powerful expression of the poet’s personal emotions. Eliot refuted this, stating that poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an ‘escape from emotion’ ; it is not the expression of personality, but an ‘escape from personality’ . Impersonality of sensation means that the poet does not directly express his personal, private sensations and emotions in poetry. He acts as a medium or a catalyst. According to Eliot:

• The Poet’s Mind as a Catalyst: Eliot used a scientific analogy. Just as the presence of a platinum wire causes oxygen and sulphur dioxide to form sulphuric acid, but the platinum wire itself remains unaffected, similarly, the poet’s mind is a receptacle where various feelings, experiences, and images combine to form a new artistic entity, but in this process, the poet’s own personality and private emotions remain separate and unaffected.
• Difference between ‘the man who suffers’ and ‘the mind which creates’: Eliot made a clear distinction between ‘the man who suffers’ and ‘the mind which creates’. A great poet does not cry about his personal sorrows; rather, he transforms those sensations into a universal, impersonal form. The emotions expressed in art are impersonal.
• The Progress of an Artist is a Continual Self-Sacrifice: Eliot believed that as an artist matures, he continuously sacrifices his personal ‘self’ and embraces a universal consciousness. His art will be greater the more it is free from personal emotions.

Thus, ‘impersonality of sensation’ refers to the process of poetic creation in which the poet’s personal feelings are transformed into an artistic form, becoming universal and impersonal. This concept is very close to the Indian poetic theory of

‘Sadharanikaran’ (Universalization)

, where both the poet and the reader rise above their personal attachments to experience Rasa.

Q7. Discuss the critical contribution of I. A. Richards.

Ans. I. A. Richards is one of the most influential English critics of the 20th century, who shifted criticism from traditional, impressionistic, and historical methods to a scientific and psychological foundation. His critical contribution can be understood through the following points:

1. Psychological Theory of Value: Richards asked, “Why is poetry important?” He answered this on a psychological basis. According to him, the human mind is a system of ‘appetencies’ or ‘impulses’. When these desires are fulfilled, it leads to satisfaction, and when thwarted, to pain. Richards argued that an experience is valuable if it satisfies the maximum number of our appetencies with the minimum of frustration. Poetry helps organize our impulses and tendencies into a coherent system, thereby establishing mental equilibrium. Thus, the value of poetry lies in its ‘balancing’ power.
2. Two Uses of Language: Richards distinguished between two fundamental uses of language – Scientific and Emotive . The purpose of scientific language is to communicate facts accurately (referential). In contrast, the purpose of emotive language is to arouse or organize feelings, attitudes, and tendencies in the reader. In poetry, the use of language is primarily emotive.
3. Four Kinds of Meaning: Richards identified four aspects of meaning in any utterance, which are crucial for textual analysis:
   • Sense: The literal meaning of what is being said.
   • Feeling: The speaker’s emotional attitude towards his subject.
   • Tone: The speaker’s attitude towards his audience.
   • Intention: The speaker’s aim or purpose.
4. Practical Criticism: Richards’ most famous contribution is the promotion of ‘Practical Criticism’. At Cambridge University, he gave students poems without revealing the author or era and asked them to interpret them. The results showed how many mistakes even educated readers make in understanding poetry. This experiment laid the foundation for close and objective textual analysis (Close Reading), which later became the central tenet of ‘New Criticism’.

In short, Richards connected criticism with aesthetics and psychology, making it a new discipline. He placed the ‘text’ at the center of criticism and developed a systematic method of meaning analysis, which profoundly influenced modern criticism.

Q8. What do you understand by New Criticism? Express your views.

Ans. New Criticism was a significant literary criticism movement that became influential in the mid-20th century, especially in America. It was a Formalist movement, with its main emphasis on the text of the poem, rather than its author or historical context. The movement’s name was popularized by John Crowe Ransom’s book, “The New Criticism” (1941) . The main beliefs and principles of New Criticism are as follows:

• Autonomy of the Text: The central principle of New Criticism is that a literary work, especially a poem, is an autonomous and self-sufficient object. Its meaning is not to be found outside of it (e.g., in the poet’s biography, psychology, or society), but is inherent within its own structure.
• Close Reading: New Critics emphasized ‘close reading’ to understand a poem. This means a careful analysis of the poem’s language, structure, imagery, symbols, rhythm, and other poetic devices to see how all these elements work together to create a unified and complex meaning.
• ‘Intentional Fallacy’ and ‘Affective Fallacy’: New Critics refuted two major fallacies:
  1. Intentional Fallacy: It is a fallacy to believe that a work’s meaning is what the author intended to say. According to Wimsatt and Beardsley, the author’s intention is irrelevant; what matters is what the work itself communicates.
  2. Affective Fallacy: It is also a fallacy to judge a work based on its emotional effect on the reader. The meaning of a work is objective, not subjective.
• Structural Tension and Paradox: New Critics believed that meaning in poetry is not conveyed in a straightforward manner, but is generated through tension, irony, paradox, and ambiguity. A good poem resolves these opposing elements into an organized and harmonious unity.

Key New Critics include

John Crowe Ransom, Cleanth Brooks, Allen Tate, Robert Penn Warren,

and

W. K. Wimsatt

. Although the movement was later criticized for its limitations (such as neglecting historical context), it established text-centered criticism and provided a disciplined and systematic approach to the study of literature, the influence of which can still be seen today.

Q9. Explain the concept of Neo-classicism.

Ans. Neo-classicism was a major literary movement that was dominant in Europe, especially in England, from approximately 1660 to 1798 (from the Restoration period to the rise of Romanticism). As the name suggests, it was a ‘neo’ or new version of the principles and ideals of ancient Greek and Roman ‘classical’ literature. This era is also known as the ‘Age of Reason’ . The concept and main features of Neo-classicism are as follows:

1. Primacy of Reason and Logic: This era gave supreme importance to reason, logic, balance, and order over imagination and emotion. It was believed that the universe is a well-ordered and rational structure, and art should also reflect this order and discipline.
2. Imitation of Nature: The ideal for Neo-classical writers was to ‘imitate nature’. Here, ‘nature’ did not just mean the external world, but ‘Human Nature’, which they considered to be universal, permanent, and unchanging. According to Alexander Pope, since the ancient classical authors had best imitated this nature, “To copy them is to copy nature.”
3. Adherence to Rules and Decorum: This movement considered adherence to strict rules essential for literary composition. These rules were based on the principles of Aristotle, Horace, and other classical masters. Special emphasis was placed on the purity of genres, adherence to the three unities (time, place, action) in drama, and Decorum —that is, the proper harmony between subject, character, and style.
4. Universality and Generalization: Neo-classicism valued general and universal truths over the individual and specific. The purpose of poetry was not to express personal feelings, but to present those truths which were “What oft was thought, but ne’er so well express’d” (Pope).
5. Didactic Purpose: In this era, the purpose of literature was considered not only to provide pleasure but also to impart moral instruction. Literature was seen as a means of social reform.

In England,

John Dryden, Alexander Pope,

and

Dr. Samuel Johnson

were the main representatives of this movement. It came to an end with the rise of the individualistic and emotional wave of Romanticism.

Q10. Write short notes on any two of the following: (a) Unity (b) Sadharanikaran (c) Objective Correlative (d) Intuition

Ans. (a) Unity The theory of unities is a contribution of Aristotle in Western poetics. He discussed it in his work ‘Poetics’ , especially in the context of Tragedy. Unity means that the various parts of a dramatic or poetic work should be bound together in a well-organized and indivisible whole. Traditionally, three unities are discussed:

1. Unity of Action: This was the most important unity for Aristotle. It means that the plot of the play should have one main action or plotline. It should have a clear beginning, middle, and end, and all events should be logically connected to the main action. No episode should be unnecessary or irrelevant.
2. Unity of Time: This means that the events of the play should occur within a specific time frame. Aristotle merely suggested that the story of a tragedy should generally be completed within ‘a single revolution of the sun’ (24 hours).
3. Unity of Place: This means that the entire action of the play should take place in a single location. There should be no change of scene.

Aristotle primarily emphasized only the

Unity of Action

. The rule of strict adherence to the unities of time and place was later formulated by Neo-classical critics in Italy and France. Aristotle’s original intention was to establish a cohesive artistic unity in a work.

(b) Sadharanikaran (Universalization)

Sadharanikaran is a highly significant theory of Indian poetics, related to the process of Rasa-realization. This theory was first systematically propounded by

Bhattanayaka

. Sadharanikaran is the process by which the Vibhavas (characters, situations) and Sthayi Bhavas (dominant emotions like love, sorrow) described in a poem or play become free from the constraints of their specific time, place, and individual identity, becoming ‘common’ or ‘universal’.

In this process:

• Characters (like Dushyanta, Shakuntala) cease to be specific individuals and become general symbols of a lover and beloved.
• The ‘self’ of the spectator or reader also becomes free from personal relationships and attachments. He sees Shakuntala neither as his own nor as another’s, but simply as a ‘poetic heroine’.
• Thus, when both the emotion (Bhava) and its determinants (Vibhava) are ‘universalized’, the connoisseur (Sahriday) rises above his personal joys and sorrows to experience a transcendental, universal aesthetic pleasure (Rasa).

Abhinavagupta further clarified Sadharanikaran, stating that in this process, the consciousness of the connoisseur is liberated from the narrow confines of the ‘self’. This theory explains how the experience of art, while being personal, is also universal and impersonal.

(c) Objective Correlative

The theory of the ‘Objective Correlative’ was introduced into modern criticism by

T. S. Eliot

. It is a practical aspect of his ‘Theory of Impersonality’. This theory explains how a poet should express his emotions in poetry.

According to Eliot, “The only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an ‘objective correlative’; in other words,

a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion

; such that when the external facts, which must terminate in sensory experience, are given, the emotion is immediately evoked.”

The simple meaning is that a poet should not directly state his emotion (e.g., sadness) by saying “I am sad.” Instead, he should depict objects, scenes, or events that naturally evoke the feeling of sadness in the reader. For example, in Shakespeare’s ‘Macbeth’, Lady Macbeth’s constant hand-washing and her statement, “All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand,” is the ‘objective correlative’ for her inner guilt. This theory emphasizes the indirect and artistic communication of emotions and makes the work impersonal.

(d) Intuition

The concept of Intuition is the foundation of the Italian philosopher

Benedetto Croce’s

theory of ‘Expressionism’. In Croce’s philosophy, ‘intuition’ is the first and most fundamental form of knowledge. It is a pre-logical stage, preceding reason.

According to Croce, intuition means

the direct, immediate, and indivisible knowledge of a single image or object at the internal or mental level

. This knowledge is not conceptual but imagistic. When we look at a flower and do not think about it but simply form an image of its form and color in our mind, this is intuition.

Its significance in Croce’s art theory lies in his belief that

‘Intuition is Expression’

. For him, the work of art is born at the moment of this intuition. When an image becomes fully clear and vivid in the artist’s mind, the creation of art is complete. This is a purely mental and spiritual activity. The essence of art lies in this intuition, not in its physical form (poem, painting, etc.). Every intuition is complete, unique, and indivisible in itself; therefore, Croce also rejects the classification or rules of art.