IGNOU BHDC-131 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU BHDC-131 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

IGNOU BHDC-131 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in English

Q1. Discuss the different views regarding the nomenclature of various periods of Hindi literature.

Ans. In the history of Hindi literature, there have been profound differences among scholars regarding the nomenclature of its various periods. Attempts have been made to name each period based on its dominant literary trend, leading to the proposal of several names. 1. Adikal (The Early Period): This period has been the most contentious in terms of naming.

• Acharya Ramchandra Shukla called it ‘Veergatha Kal’ (The Age of Heroic Ballads) based on the abundance of Raso texts. However, Hazariprasad Dwivedi refuted this, arguing that other forms of literature were also being composed during that era.
• George Grierson referred to it as ‘Charan Kal’ (The Age of Bards).
• The Mishra Bandhus named it ‘Prarambhik Kal’ (The Initial Period).
• Rahul Sankrityayan , noting the influence of Siddhas and feudal lords, called it ‘Siddha-Samant Kal’ (The Age of Siddhas and Feudal Lords).
• The name ‘Adikal’ (The Early/First Period), given by Acharya Hazariprasad Dwivedi , is the most widely accepted because it is a neutral term that encompasses all the literary streams of that era.

2. Bhaktikal (The Devotional Period):

Acharya Ramchandra Shukla also called this period

‘Purva Madhyakal’

(Early Medieval Period). Due to the overwhelming sentiment of devotion in this era, the name

‘Bhaktikal’

is universally accepted. Recognizing its significance, George Grierson called it the

‘Golden Age’

of Hindi literature.

3. Ritikal (The Scholastic/Poetic Period):

This was termed

‘Uttar Madhyakal’

(Late Medieval Period) by Shukla.

• The Mishra Bandhus called it ‘Alankrit Kal’ (The Ornate Period) due to the trend of ornamentation in poetry.
• Acharya Vishwanath Prasad Mishra named it ‘Shringar Kal’ (The Age of Erotic Poetry) because of the dominance of the erotic sentiment (Shringar Ras).
• The name ‘Ritikal’ , proposed by Acharya Ramchandra Shukla , is the most prevalent, as the poets of this era followed the ‘Riti’ (method/tradition) of Sanskrit poetics to compose definitive texts (Lakshan Granths).

4. Adhunik Kal (The Modern Period):

Observing the development of prose in this era, Acharya Shukla named it

‘Gadya Kal’

(The Age of Prose). However, the name

‘Adhunik Kal’

is more comprehensive and accepted, under which various sub-periods like the Bhartendu Yug, Dwivedi Yug, Chhayavad, etc., are included.

In conclusion, the controversies over nomenclature show that it is difficult to name an entire era based on a single trend. Nevertheless, the names ‘Adikal’, ‘Bhaktikal’, ‘Ritikal’, and ‘Adhunik Kal’ are widely accepted.

Q2. Give an introduction to the Hindi novel of the Premchand era.

Ans. The Premchand era (approx. 1918-1936) is considered the golden age in the development of the Hindi novel. This era is named after the emperor of novels, Munshi Premchand , who liberated the Hindi novel from the world of magic, fantasy, and espionage, and placed it on the solid ground of realism. Novels before this era were primarily based on entertainment and pure imagination. Premchand was the first to connect the novel with social and political consciousness. The main objective of his novels, along with entertainment, was to highlight the problems of society and seek their solutions. Key features of the Premchand-era novels:

• Idealistic Realism: Premchand’s novels depict reality, but they often present an idealistic solution in the end. ‘Premashram’, ‘Rangbhoomi’, ‘Karmabhumi’ are examples of this. However, by the time he wrote ‘Godan’, his perspective had become one of stark realism.
• Peasants and Rural Life: For the first time in novels of this era, the problems of Indian peasants and rural life, such as poverty, debt, exploitation, and the zamindari system, were poignantly depicted. ‘Godan’ is the best example of this.
• Depiction of Social Problems: Social evils like the dowry system, mismatched marriages, the plight of widows, untouchability, and communalism were strongly attacked. ‘Sevasadan’ is based on the problem of prostitution, and ‘Nirmala’ on mismatched marriage and the dowry system.
• Influence of the National Movement: The influence of Gandhian ideology and the freedom movement is clearly visible in Premchand’s novels. Characters in novels like ‘Rangbhoomi’ and ‘Karmabhumi’ actively participate in the national movement.

Other prominent novelists of this era include

Jaishankar Prasad

(‘Kankal’, ‘Titli’),

Vishwamharnath Sharma ‘Kaushik’

(‘Maa’, ‘Bhikharini’), and

Pandey Bechan Sharma ‘Ugra’

(‘Dilli ka Dalal’).

In short, the Premchand era gave a new direction to the Hindi novel and provided it with literary dignity by connecting it to the life and problems of the common man.

Q3. Shed light on the political, social, and cultural conditions of Ritikavya.

Ans. The literature of the Ritikal (approx. 1650-1850 AD) was deeply influenced by the political, social, and cultural conditions of its time. These circumstances gave rise to the period’s characteristic trends of eroticism and patron-praise. 1. Political Conditions: This period marked the zenith and subsequent decline of the Mughal Empire. Shah Jahan’s reign was prosperous in terms of art and architecture, but Aurangzeb’s orthodox policies created instability. After Aurangzeb’s death, the central authority weakened, and the country fragmented into numerous small states. These rulers were hedonistic, art-loving, and averse to wars. Poets found patronage in the courts of these kings and feudal lords. To please their patrons, they composed erotic poetry and exaggerated praises. Therefore, royal eulogy and the depiction of luxury are prominent in Ritikal poetry. 2. Social Conditions: The society of this era was steeped in extreme luxury and feudal tendencies. Women were considered mere objects of pleasure. The upper class of society (rulers and lords) was immersed in indulgence, while the common populace was a victim of poverty and exploitation. Since the poets were mostly associated with royal courts, the depiction of the sorrows and sufferings of the common people is almost negligible in their poetry. The focal point of literature became the classification of heroes and heroines (Nayaka-Nayika Bhed) and head-to-toe descriptions (Nakh-Shikh Varnan). 3. Cultural Conditions: In this period, architecture (like the Taj Mahal), painting, and music developed, but there was a decline in literary originality. Following the tradition of Sanskrit poetics, poets composed definitive texts (Lakshan Granths), which discussed the elements of poetry (rasa, chhand, alankar). The purpose of poetry became a display of erudition and the creation of marvel. Braj Bhasha was the primary poetic language of this period. A hedonistic approach to life disconnected literature from the lives of the people, although some poets like Ghananand also gave a poignant expression to the pain of love. Overall, the conditions of the Ritikal were such that they pushed poets away from public life and towards courtly culture and an erotic mindset.

Q4. Write a detailed note on the Bhakti movement and the ‘Rambhakti काव्यधारा’.

Ans. The Bhakti Movement was a significant cultural and social movement in medieval India, which began in South India with the Alvar saints and later spread throughout North India. This movement emphasized true devotion, love, and surrender to God, while opposing external rituals, ceremonies, and the caste system. It encouraged literary creation in vernacular languages, which made literature accessible to the common masses. The Bhakti movement had two main streams: Nirgun (worship of a formless God) and Sagun (worship of God with form). Under Sagun bhakti, two major sub-streams developed: Krishnabhakti (devotion to Krishna) and Rambhakti (devotion to Ram). Rambhakti Kavyadhara (The Ram Devotional Poetic Stream): In the Rambhakti stream, Lord Shri Ram , an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, was worshipped as the primary deity. The poets of this stream depicted Ram’s form as the ‘protector of the people’ (Lok-Rakshak) and the ‘ideal man’ (Maryada Purushottam). Major Trends and Characteristics:

• Spirit of Synthesis: The representative poet of this stream is Goswami Tulsidas . His poetry shows a remarkable synthesis of Shaivism and Vaishnavism, knowledge and devotion, and Sagun and Nirgun philosophies. He attempted to establish unity among different sections of society.
• Aspiration for Public Welfare: Rambhakti poetry was composed not just for individual salvation but for the welfare of the entire society (Lok-Mangal). Ram’s kingdom is presented as an ideal state, ‘Ramrajya’.
• Devotion in the ‘Dasya Bhava’ (Servant-Master Attitude): The Ram-devotee poets adopted the ‘Dasya Bhava’, considering themselves as servants and Ram as their master. Tulsidas says, “Sevak sevya bhav binu, bhav na taria urgari.” (Without the servant-master relationship, one cannot cross the ocean of existence).
• Composition of Epic Poetry: This stream saw the creation of great epics like ‘Ramcharitmanas’ . It describes the entire life of Ram in a narrative (prabandh) style.
• Language: The poets of this stream primarily used the Awadhi language, although works were also composed in Braj Bhasha (e.g., Tulsidas’s ‘Vinaypatrika’).

Besides Tulsidas, other poets of this stream include

Nabhadas

(‘Bhaktamal’),

Keshavdas

(‘Ramchandrika’), and

Agradis

. The Rambhakti stream provided Indian society with a moral and idealistic vision of life, the influence of which remains widespread even today.

Q5. Shed light on the trends of Dwivedi-era poetry.

Ans. In Hindi literature, the Dwivedi Yug (approx. 1900-1918), named after Acharya Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi , is a reformist period following the Bhartendu Yug. When Dwivedi took over the editorship of the ‘Saraswati’ magazine in 1903, he brought about significant reforms in Hindi poetry in terms of language, grammar, and subject matter. The main trends (features) of the poetry of this era are as follows:

• Nationalism and Patriotism: The dominant theme of the poetry of this era was nationalism. Poets expressed the pain of subjugation and awakened feelings of self-pride and freedom among their countrymen. Maithilisharan Gupt’s work ‘Bharat-Bharati’ is a prime example, which created a wave of national consciousness across the country.
• Social Reform: Dwivedi-era poets strongly attacked social evils like untouchability, child marriage, and the exploitation of women. They supported women’s education and widow remarriage. Gupt glorified the neglected character of Urmila in ‘Saket’, and in ‘Yashodhara’, he gave voice to the pain of Yashodhara, abandoned by Gautam Buddha.
• Itivrittatmakta (Narrative Dominance): The poetry of this era is characterized by a dominance of description and narrative over imagination and emotion. Events and subjects are described in a direct and plain manner, which sometimes results in a lack of artistic subtlety.
• Standardization of Khari Boli: Thanks to the efforts of Acharya Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Khari Boli Hindi was established as the language of poetry. He placed special emphasis on grammatical purity and linguistic refinement, leading Khari Boli to replace Braj Bhasha.
• Morality and Idealism: Instead of entertainment or eroticism, the poetry of this era placed greater emphasis on moral sermons and ideals. There was a concerted effort to establish values such as truth, justice, and devotion to duty through poetry.

Prominent poets of this era include

Maithilisharan Gupt

(the National Poet),

Ayodhyasingh Upadhyay ‘Hariaudh’

(‘Priyapravas’ – the first epic in Khari Boli),

Shridhar Pathak

, and

Ramcharit Upadhyay

. Overall, the Dwivedi Yug pulled Hindi poetry out of eroticism and connected it with national and social concerns.

Q6. Discuss the characteristics of Hindi Krishnabhakti poetry.

Ans. Within the Sagun stream of the Bhaktikal, the Krishnabhakti poetic stream holds a very important place. The poets of this stream based their devotion on the charming, amorous, and playful form of Lord Krishna, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. This poetic stream developed mainly under the influence of the Pushtimarg (Path of Grace) established by Vallabhacharya. The main characteristics of Krishnabhakti poetry are as follows:

• Depiction of Krishna’s Childhood and Adolescent Forms: Instead of Krishna’s ‘divine’ or ‘world-protector’ form, the Krishna-devotee poets focused more on his enchanting childhood form and his adolescent form engaging in love-play with the Gopis. Surdas has explored every corner of the ‘Vatsalya Ras’ (parental love sentiment). There are vivid descriptions of Krishna’s childhood pranks, his stealing of butter, and his mischief with the Gopis.
• Dominance of Vatsalya and Shringar Ras: The primary sentiments (rasas) of this poetry are Vatsalya (parental love) and Shringar (erotic love). Both aspects of Shringar – Sanyog (union) and Viyog (separation) – have been poignantly depicted. Surdas’s ‘Bhramargeet’ episode is an excellent example of the description of separation.
• Nature as an Excitant (Uddipan): In Krishnabhakti poetry, nature is rarely depicted independently. It is mostly portrayed as a backdrop for Krishna’s ‘lilas’ (divine plays) or as a means to intensify (excite) the emotions of the hero and heroine.
• Lyrical (Muktaka) Poetic Style: Unlike Rambhakti poetry, Krishnabhakti poetry is primarily written in the Muktaka (lyrical) style . The poets composed ‘pads’ and songs that are ‘geya’ (singable).
• Devotion in ‘Madhurya Bhava’ (Bridal Mysticism): In this stream, instead of the ‘Dasya Bhava’ (servant attitude), there is a predominance of ‘Sakhya Bhava’ (friendly attitude) and ‘Madhurya Bhava’ (attitude of a beloved). The Gopis love Krishna as their lover.
• Use of Braj Bhasha: The sole language of Krishnabhakti poetry is Braj Bhasha . Poets like Surdas, Nanddas, and Mirabai took Braj Bhasha to its literary zenith.

The foremost poet of this stream is

Surdas

, known as the ‘ship of the Ashtachhap’ (a group of eight poets). Other prominent poets include

Nanddas, Parmananddas, Kumbhandas

, and

Mirabai

, whose names are particularly noteworthy.

Q7. Shed light on the problem of periodization of Hindi literature.

Ans. To systematically understand the vast and diverse nature of Hindi literature, its periodization is essential. However, this task has been extremely complex and controversial. Various scholars have attempted periodization based on different criteria, which has led to several problems. The major problems of periodization are as follows:

• Determining the Starting Point: A major problem is deciding when Hindi literature begins. Some scholars trace its origins to the Apabhramsha literature of the 7th century (like Rahul Sankrityayan), while scholars like Acharya Ramchandra Shukla believe it emerged from the 10th century. Whether Apabhramsha should be considered a precursor to Hindi or included in early Hindi is a major debate.
• Basis of Periodization: What should be the basis for dividing the periods? Some scholars have used the author (e.g., Bhartendu Yug, Dwivedi Yug), some have used the dominant trend (e.g., Veergatha Kal, Ritikal, Bhaktikal), and others have used evolution (e.g., Adikal, Madhyakal, Adhunik Kal). No single basis has been unanimously accepted.
• Boundary Lines of Periods: Literary trends do not start or end on a specific date. They evolve and fade gradually. Therefore, it is impossible to draw a clear dividing line between two periods. For instance, the trends of Bhaktikal and Ritikal are found intermingled. A trend from one period often continues into the next.
• Problem of Nomenclature: Finding a name for each period that represents all its trends is a great challenge. For example, the name ‘Veergatha Kal’ ignores the Siddha, Nath, and Jain literature of the Adikal. (This problem is detailed in Question 1).
• Uneven Span of Eras: The time span of the eras in periodization is very uneven. Adikal spans about 400 years, while eras in the Modern Period (like Chhayavad) are condensed into just 15-20 years.

Despite these problems, the periodization proposed by

Acharya Ramchandra Shukla

is considered the most logical and prevalent, although later scholars (like Hazariprasad Dwivedi) have made significant amendments to it. The generally accepted framework is:

Adikal (Early Period), Bhaktikal (Devotional Period), Ritikal (Scholastic Period),

and

Adhunik Kal (Modern Period)

.

Q8. Write an essay on ‘Bhartendu-era Hindi drama’.

Ans. In the Bhartendu Yug (approx. 1850-1900), the gateway to modern Hindi literature, many prose genres developed, among which drama holds a paramount position. Bhartendu Harishchandra himself, who is called the ‘Father of Modern Hindi Drama’, made drama a powerful medium not only for entertainment but also for social reform and for awakening national consciousness. Before Bhartendu, there were only a few works in the name of Hindi drama, like ‘Ramayan Mahanatak’ (Pranchand Chauhan) or ‘Anand Raghunandan’ (Maharaj Vishwanath Singh), which lacked theatrical elements. It was Bhartendu who truly laid the foundation of Hindi drama. He not only wrote original plays but also translated excellent plays from Sanskrit, Bengali, and English. Key Features of Bhartendu-era Dramas:

• National and Social Consciousness: The main objective of the plays of this era was to depict the plight of the country and to awaken the spirit of reform and patriotism among the people. Bhartendu’s play ‘Bharat Durdasha’ presents a poignant picture of India’s miserable condition under British rule, while ‘Andher Nagari’ is a sharp satire on the corrupt governance of the time.
• Reformist Approach: These plays attacked social evils such as hypocrisy, untouchability, child marriage, and religious superstitions. ‘Vaidiki Hinsa Hinsa Na Bhavati’ is a farce (satirical playlet) on religious hypocrisy.
• Synthesis of Styles: In terms of style, the playwrights of the Bhartendu era synthesized elements from both the Indian folk theatre tradition (like Nautanki, Yatra) and Western theatrical style. They also adopted the classical tradition of Sanskrit but simplified it.
• Stageability: These plays were written not just to be read but also to be performed on stage. Their language was simple, characters were lively, and dialogues were crisp, so that the common audience could easily understand them.
• Original and Translated Plays: Bhartendu himself translated plays like ‘Vidyasundar’ (from Bengali) and ‘Mudrarakshasa’ (from Sanskrit), and also wrote original plays like ‘Neeldevi’ and ‘Satya Harishchandra’.

Besides Bhartendu, other major playwrights of this era were

Lala Shrinivas Das

(‘Randhir Premmohini’ – considered the first tragedy in Hindi),

Balkrishna Bhatt

(‘Nal-Damayanti Swayamvar’), and

Radhakrishna Das

(‘Dukhini Bala’).

In conclusion, the Bhartendu era provided a strong foundation for Hindi drama and, by connecting it to public life, turned it into a powerful tool for social and national change.

Q9. Give an introduction to the Raso poetry and secular literature of the Adikal.

Ans. The literature of the Adikal (approx. 1000-1400 AD) is marked by diverse trends. On one hand, it includes religion-based literature of the Siddhas, Naths, and Jains, and on the other, there is Raso poetry filled with heroic sentiment and secular literature based on folk life. Raso Poetry: The most prominent literary trend of the Adikal is the Raso poetry tradition. Scholars differ on the etymology of the word ‘Raso’; some derive it from ‘Rasak’, some from ‘Rasayan’, and others from ‘Rahasya’. This poetry was primarily composed by Charan poets to give an exaggerated description of the bravery and wars of their patron kings. Key Features:

• Mixture of Heroic and Erotic Sentiments: These poems contain lively and vigorous descriptions of wars, hence the heroic sentiment (Vir Ras) is dominant. At the same time, due to the description of the kings’ marriages and love affairs, there is also a beautiful depiction of the erotic sentiment (Shringar Ras).
• Combination of Historicity and Imagination: While the characters and events in Raso poetry are historical, the poets used their imagination to make them highly interesting and exaggerated. For this reason, their historical authenticity is doubtful.
• Use of Dingal-Pingal Language: The language of Raso poetry is mainly Dingal (Rajasthani mixed with Apabhramsha) and Pingal (Braj Bhasha mixed with Apabhramsha).
• Major Raso Texts: ‘Prithviraj Raso’ by Chandbardai is the most famous epic of this tradition. Other major works include ‘Bisaldev Raso’ by Narpati Nalh , ‘Parmal Raso’ (Alha-Khand) by Jagnik , and ‘Khuman Raso’ by Dalpati Vijay .

Secular Literature (Laukik Sahitya):

Moving away from the courtly and heroic tradition of Raso poetry, some literature was also created in the Adikal that was based on folk life. This literature was written for the purpose of entertainment and general knowledge.

• Dhola-Maru Ra Duha: This is a famous Rajasthani folk love ballad, which poignantly describes the love story of Prince Dhola and Princess Marwani.
• Literature of Amir Khusro: Amir Khusro (13th-14th century) is considered the first poet of ‘Khari Boli Hindi’. He composed riddles (paheliyan), equivocations (mukariyan), two-liners (do-sukhane) , and ghazals for the entertainment of the common people. His language is simple and close to common speech.
• Literature of Vidyapati: Besides Sanskrit and Avahatta, Vidyapati composed the ‘Padavali’ in Maithili . It contains an erotic description of the love of Radha and Krishna, which is based on the tradition of folk songs and is extremely melodious.

Thus, the literature of the Adikal contains both the courtly, war-centric Raso poetry on one side, and the delightful, folk-life-connected secular literature on the other.

Q10. Giving a brief introduction to Bhaktikavya, discuss its general characteristics.

Ans. In the history of Hindi literature, the first half of the medieval period (approx. 14th to 17th century) is known as the Bhaktikal (The Devotional Period). It is called the ‘Golden Age’ of Hindi literature. During this period, a powerful wave of devotion flowed, which influenced every sphere of society, religion, and literature. It was not just a literary movement but a broad socio-cultural movement. The Bhakti movement originated in South India with the Alvar saints and spread to North India through Acharyas like Ramananda. For a populace disheartened by political defeat, social inequality, and religious hypocrisy, Bhakti served as a source of strength. Bhakti poetry is mainly divided into two streams:

1. Nirgun Kavyadhara (Formless Stream): Worship of the formless, attributeless, and omnipresent form of God. It has two branches – (a) Gyanashrayi Shakha (Path of Knowledge, e.g., Kabir) and (b) Premashrayi Shakha (Path of Love/Sufi poetry, e.g., Jayasi).
2. Sagun Kavyadhara (Form Stream): Worship of God’s form with attributes, divine plays, and incarnations. It has two branches – (a) Rambhakti Shakha (e.g., Tulsidas) and (b) Krishnabhakti Shakha (e.g., Surdas).

General Characteristics (Trends) of Bhakti Poetry:

Despite being divided into different streams, all of Bhakti poetry shares some common features:

• Exclusive Love and Surrender to God: All bhakti poets expressed deep faith and complete surrender to God.
• Importance of the Guru: In both Nirgun and Sagun streams, the Guru is considered the guide to attaining God and is given a position even higher than God. Kabir says – “Guru Govind dou khade, kake lagun paany.” (Both Guru and God are standing, whose feet should I touch first?).
• Opposition to External Rituals and Formalities: The bhakti poets condemned external rituals like worship methods, fasts, pilgrimages, and the caste system, emphasizing devotion with a true heart.
• Use of Vernacular Languages: The poets of this period composed in the languages of the common people – Awadhi, Braj Bhasha, Sadhukkadi, Rajasthani , etc., instead of Sanskrit, which made literature accessible to everyone.
• Spirit of Synthesis: This poetry shows an attempt to establish Hindu-Muslim unity, a synthesis of knowledge and devotion, and harmony among different beliefs and opinions.
• Humanistic Approach: Bhakti poetry considers humanity paramount and opposes any discrimination based on caste or religion.

Due to these characteristics, Bhakti poetry remains relevant even today and has a profound impact on the Indian psyche.