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IGNOU BHIC-107 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. Discuss the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate under the Tughlaqs.

Ans. Introduction: The reign of the Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1414) marked the zenith of the territorial expansion of the Delhi Sultanate. The foundations for this expansion were laid by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq , and it reached its peak under Muhammad bin Tughlaq . However, this vast empire proved to be unstable and its disintegration began during the later part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign and continued thereafter. Expansion under Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325): Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq focused on consolidating the Sultanate and suppressing rebellions. He sent his son, Jauna Khan (later Muhammad bin Tughlaq), to the Deccan, where he reconquered Warangal (from the Kakatiyas) and Madurai (from the Pandyas). These regions were annexed and brought under the direct administration of the Sultanate. Ghiyasuddin himself led a successful expedition to Bengal, bringing it back under the Sultanate’s influence. These conquests provided a solid base for further expansion. The Peak of Expansion under Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351): It was during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (MBT) that the Delhi Sultanate reached its greatest geographical extent.

• Conquest of the Deccan and South India: He completed the work started by his father and brought almost the entire South India under the direct control of Delhi. Even the distant region of Ma’bar on the Malabar coast was annexed. To effectively control this vast empire, he famously transferred his capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed Daulatabad) in the Deccan.
• Ambitious Expansionist Projects: His ambitions extended beyond the frontiers of India. Though his plans failed, they reveal the grand scale of his vision:
  • Khurasan Expedition: He raised a massive army (reportedly 370,000 men) for an invasion of Khurasan in Central Asia. However, due to a change in the political situation, the plan was abandoned and the army was disbanded, causing a huge drain on the treasury.
  • Qarachil Expedition: He dispatched an army into the Kumaon-Garhwal hills, likely to secure the northern frontiers. The expedition ended in a disaster with most of the soldiers perishing.

The End of Expansion and Disintegration:

In the latter half of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign, his vast empire began to crumble under the weight of numerous rebellions. His harsh policies and taxation schemes bred discontent. The rise of powerful independent kingdoms in the south, such as

Vijayanagara (1336)

and the

Bahmani Sultanate (1347)

, marked the beginning of the Sultanate’s disintegration.

Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388)

adopted a policy of consolidation rather than expansion. He made two attempts to reconquer Bengal but failed. He focused on internal administration, agriculture, and public works. His weak military policy and his appeasement of the nobility further weakened the Sultanate.

Conclusion:

Thus, the Tughlaq period witnessed both the apogee of the Delhi Sultanate’s expansion and the beginning of its end. Under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the Sultanate stretched to its largest-ever size, but this over-extension was unsustainable. His ambitious projects failed and his policies sparked rebellions, leading to the rapid disintegration of the empire.

Q2. Analyze the nature of administration under the Delhi Sultans.

Ans. Introduction: The administrative system of the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) was a Turko-Persian system adapted to Indian conditions. It was essentially a military state with the Sultan at its apex. The nature of the administration was largely autocratic, though in theory, it was supposed to function within the framework of Islamic law (Sharia). Nature of the Administration: The administration of the Delhi Sultanate was centralized and militaristic. Its primary objectives were to maintain law and order, collect land revenue, and protect the state from external invasions and internal rebellions. Central Administration: The Sultan was the pivot of the administration. He was the chief executive, the supreme commander of the army, and the final source of justice. He was assisted by a number of departments and ministers:

• Diwan-i-Wizarat: This was the finance department, headed by the Wazir . He acted as the prime minister and supervised revenue and expenditure.
• Diwan-i-Arz: This was the military department, headed by the Ariz-i-Mumalik . It was responsible for the recruitment, logistics, inspection, and payment of the army.
• Diwan-i-Insha: This was the department of royal correspondence, which drafted royal proclamations and communications.
• Diwan-i-Risalat: This department dealt with religious matters, endowments, and foreign affairs. Its head was the Sadr-us-Sudur , who often also acted as the chief Qazi (judge).

The Sultan often consulted a council of his most trusted nobles and officials, known as the

Majlis-i-Khalwat

.

Provincial Administration: The Iqta System

The backbone of provincial administration was the

Iqta system

. The Sultanate was divided into territories of varying sizes called ‘iqtas’. These were assigned to military commanders or nobles, known as

‘muqtis’

or

‘walis’

. The duty of the muqti was to maintain law and order, collect revenue, and maintain a fixed number of troops from his iqta. After meeting his expenses, he was required to remit the surplus revenue (fawazil) to the central treasury. The system was not hereditary, and muqtis were transferable.

Debate on the Nature of the State:

Historians have debated the nature of the Delhi Sultanate.

• Some have termed it a ‘theocracy’ because the Sultans were theoretically subordinate to the Caliph and ruled according to the Sharia. The Ulama (Islamic scholars) held an influential position in the state.
• In contrast, historians like Mohammad Habib and Irfan Habib argue that it was a highly centralized and despotic state where the Sultan’s will (zawabit) was paramount. Strong Sultans like Alauddin Khalji openly declared that they acted in the interest of the state, regardless of the Sharia. Muhammad bin Tughlaq also sought to limit the influence of the Ulama.

Conclusion:

Ultimately, the administration of the Delhi Sultanate was a complex blend of Islamic theory and Indian political realities. It was a military-bureaucratic structure primarily designed for maximum revenue extraction and the maintenance of a large army. Its nature fluctuated between a theocratic ideal and a pragmatic, despotic reality, depending on the personality of the Sultan and his relationship with the nobility and the Ulama.

Q3. Explain the revenue administration of the Delhi Sultans.

Ans. Introduction: The revenue administration of the Delhi Sultanate was the main source of the state’s income and was crucial for sustaining its military might. The Sultans developed an elaborate system, the cornerstone of which was land revenue. This system underwent significant reforms over time, particularly during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and the Tughlaqs. Sources of Revenue: The Sultanate’s income was primarily derived from two sources: 1. Religious Taxes (on Muslims): This included Zakat (2.5% of income for charitable purposes). 2. Secular Taxes (on all subjects):

• Kharaj: This was the land revenue collected from non-Muslims, ranging from 1/3rd to 1/2 of the produce.
• Khams: This was 1/5th of the war booty that belonged to the state (Alauddin Khalji increased it to 4/5ths).
• Jizya: This was a poll tax levied on non-Muslims in return for exemption from military service and protection by the state.
• Other Taxes: These included house tax (ghari), pasture tax (charai), and irrigation tax (haqq-i-sharb, introduced by Firuz Tughlaq).

Evolution of Land Revenue Administration:

Initially, the Sultanate continued the existing system of collecting revenue through local chiefs (khuts, muqaddams, chaudhuris). However, over time, efforts were made to increase central control.

Alauddin Khalji’s Reforms (1296-1316):

Alauddin introduced revolutionary reforms in the revenue system to maximize the state’s income and curb the power of intermediaries.

• Measurement of Land: He introduced the system of land measurement (masahat) and made ‘biswa’ a standard unit for estimating produce.
• High Tax Rate: He raised the land revenue demand to 50% (half) of the produce, collected directly by the state.
• Curbing Intermediaries: He abolished the special privileges of the khuts, muqaddams, and chaudhuris, forcing them to pay taxes like other peasants.
• New Taxes: He imposed new taxes like ghari (house tax) and charai (pasture tax) .
• Diwan-i-Mustakhraj: A special department, ‘Diwan-i-Mustakhraj’, was created to collect revenue arrears.

Changes under the Tughlaqs:

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

reversed some of Alauddin’s harsh measures. He preferred crop-sharing (batai) over measurement and allowed for moderate increases in taxes.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq

drastically increased taxes in the Doab region, which, coinciding with a severe famine, proved disastrous. Later, he established an agriculture department,

‘Diwan-i-Kohi’

, and provided loans (sondhar) to help peasants.

Firuz Shah Tughlaq

abolished many taxes he considered un-Islamic. He expanded agriculture by building canals and imposed a new irrigation tax,

‘haqq-i-sharb’

(1/10th of the produce). He also made the iqta system hereditary, which weakened central control.

Conclusion:

The revenue administration of the Delhi Sultanate was a dynamic system that evolved under the policies of different rulers. Alauddin Khalji’s reforms brought state control to its peak, while the Tughlaqs modified it according to their needs and ideology. The central objective of the system always remained to ensure the maximum possible income for the state to maintain the Sultanate’s vast army and bureaucracy.

Q4. Write short notes on any two of the following in about 200 words each: (a) Amir Khusrau (b) The Ulama (c) The Nayaka System (d) Ahom Kingdom

Ans. (a) Amir Khusrau Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) was one of the greatest Persian-language poets, scholars, musicians, and historians of the Delhi Sultanate. His real name was Ab’ul Hasan Yamin-ud-Din Khusrau. He enjoyed the patronage of more than seven Sultans of Delhi, from Balban to Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. Khusrau is famously known as the “Tuti-e-Hind” (Parrot of India) . As a historian, he authored significant historical works like Khazain-ul-Futuh (describing the conquests of Alauddin Khalji) and Tughlaq Nama (a history of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq’s reign). His poetry includes Persian ghazals, masnavis, and qasidas. He is also credited with writing poetry in Hindi (or Hindavi), making him one of the earliest figures in the development of Khari Boli Hindi. In the field of music, he is traditionally credited with the creation of Qawwali and the invention of musical instruments like the sitar and tabla. Khusrau was a devout disciple of the Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya , and his work is deeply imbued with Sufi philosophy. He is a symbol of India’s composite Ganga-Jamuni culture. (d) Ahom Kingdom The Ahom Kingdom was a late medieval kingdom located in the Brahmaputra Valley in present-day Assam, India. It was founded in 1228 by a Tai prince named Sukapha , who came from Mong Mao (in modern-day Yunnan, China). The kingdom maintained its sovereignty for nearly 600 years and successfully resisted Mughal expansion into the Northeast, most famously in the Battle of Saraighat (1671). The Ahom state had a unique political and social structure. The king was known as the Swargadeo (Lord of the Heavens) and was assisted by a council of five great ministers called the Patra Mantris . A key feature of their administration was the paik system , a form of obligatory labour service to the state. Every adult male, or paik , was a member of a khel (clan) and had to render service to the state in rotation. The Ahoms also had a strong tradition of writing historical chronicles, known as Buranjis , which provide a detailed account of their history. The Ahom kingdom gradually assimilated local cultures and by the 17th century, the Ahom court had adopted the Assamese language and Hinduism.

Q5. Discuss agrarian technology used during 13th-15th century.

Ans. Introduction: During the 13th to 15th centuries, corresponding to the period of the Delhi Sultanate, Indian agriculture witnessed significant technological developments and diffusion. These technologies not only increased agricultural productivity but also contributed to the expansion of the agrarian economy. Key among these were advancements in irrigation techniques, agricultural tools, and the introduction of new crops. Irrigation Technology: The most significant contribution to agricultural development was in the field of irrigation technology.

• The Persian Wheel (Rahat or Saqiya): The most notable technological innovation of this period was the widespread use of the Persian wheel . Although it may have existed in India earlier, its diffusion became prominent during the Sultanate period. It was a gear-based water-lifting device, using animal power (usually oxen) to draw water continuously from deep wells. It replaced older, less efficient techniques, making it possible to irrigate larger areas and cultivate multiple crops in a year.
• Canal Construction: The Sultans, particularly Firuz Shah Tughlaq , took a keen interest in creating an extensive network of canals for irrigation. He had several canals dug from rivers like the Yamuna and Sutlej, bringing water to the arid regions of Haryana and Punjab. These canals not only expanded agriculture but also created a new source of revenue for the government in the form of an irrigation tax, the haqq-i-sharb .

Agricultural Implements:

There were also improvements in the tools used for farming. The use of iron had become more common, allowing for the creation of more durable and efficient implements. The use of an

iron-tipped plough

made it easier to till hard and arid land. The use of iron sickles and other harvesting tools made the process of reaping crops faster and more efficient.

New Crops and Horticulture:

This period also saw the introduction of new crops and the development of horticulture. The Turks are believed to have introduced several new varieties of fruits and vegetables to India. Firuz Shah Tughlaq is credited with laying out over 1200 gardens in and around Delhi, cultivating grapes and other fruits. Sericulture (rearing of silkworms) also spread, making silk production a significant industry, especially in Bengal.

Conclusion:

Overall, the agrarian technology of the 13th-15th centuries, especially the proliferation of the Persian wheel and canal irrigation, strengthened the agricultural base of the Delhi Sultanate. These innovations led to increased production, expansion of cultivable land, and a boost to the rural economy, which in turn supported the Sultanate’s large urban population and vast army.

Q6. Analyze the factors that led to the rise of the Bhakti Movement.

Ans. Introduction: The Bhakti movement was a significant socio-religious reform movement in medieval India, which began in South India around the 7th century and spread widely in North India after the 13th century. It emphasized personal love and devotion to God and challenged the caste system and ritualism. Several complex social, religious, and political factors were responsible for its rise. Factors Responsible for the Rise: 1. Evils in Hinduism: Over time, Hinduism had become encumbered with complex rituals, the dominance of the priestly class (Brahmins), and a rigid caste system. Religion had become difficult for the common people to understand and practice. The Bhakti movement offered a simple, emotional, and accessible path that emphasized a direct connection with God, without the need for priests or expensive rituals. 2. Influence of Sufism: Sufi saints arrived in India with the establishment of Turkish rule. Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam, emphasized a relationship of love between God and the devotee. The liberal and egalitarian teachings of the Sufis, such as monotheism , service to humanity, and love, attracted many Indians. The interaction between Sufi khanqahs and Bhakti saints’ maths stimulated the growth of the Bhakti movement. 3. Rigidity of the Caste System: The Bhakti saints strongly opposed discrimination based on caste. They declared that all human beings are equal in the eyes of God and salvation depends on one’s devotion, not one’s caste. Many prominent saints like Kabir, Raidas, and Nanak came from lower castes. Their teachings gave a message of self-respect and social equality to the people of the lower strata. 4. Use of Vernacular Languages: Instead of Sanskrit, the Bhakti saints used the languages of the common people, i.e., regional languages (like Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Marathi), to propagate their teachings. This made their message easily accessible to the masses and turned it into a popular movement. Tulsidas wrote the ‘Ramcharitmanas’ in Awadhi, and Surdas composed in Braj Bhasha, helping the wave of Bhakti spread throughout North India. 5. Socio-Political Context: After the establishment of Turkish rule, many Hindus lost political power and patronage. In this atmosphere of despair and uncertainty, Bhakti provided a path to inner strength and spiritual solace. It gave people an opportunity to take refuge in a spiritual world beyond social and political upheavals. Conclusion: The rise of the Bhakti movement was not the result of a single cause but a complex interplay of the prevailing religious, social, and political conditions. It was a powerful combination of reform within Hinduism, the influence of Sufi ideas, and the aspiration for social equality, which left a lasting impact on medieval Indian society.

Q7. Discuss the context and structural forms of forts built under the Delhi Sultans.

Ans. Introduction: During the Delhi Sultanate period (1206-1526), architecture, especially fortification, was highly developed. Forts were not merely military structures; they were also symbols of imperial power, administrative centers, and the nuclei of urban settlements. They were constructed at strategic locations to defend against external invasions and maintain internal control. The Sultans of Delhi built several magnificent forts that stand as testaments to their power and architectural prowess. Context of Construction:

• Defensive Necessity: The primary purpose of forts was defense. The Sultanate was under constant threat from Mongol invasions, which necessitated strong fortifications. Furthermore, forts were used to suppress internal rebellions and maintain control over conquered territories.
• Demonstration of Power: Massive and imposing forts demonstrated the Sultan’s power, wealth, and prestige. They were visual symbols of imperial authority, designed to impress both subjects and rivals.
• Administrative Centers: Forts often housed the royal court, government offices, army barracks, and the residences of the royal family. They served as the nerve centers of the Sultanate’s administrative machinery.
• Urban Development: The construction of new forts often led to the development of new cities. In Delhi itself, the Sultans built several city-forts, such as Siri, Tughlaqabad, and Firozabad.

Structural Forms and Features:

The forts of the Delhi Sultanate exhibit a synthesis of Indian and Islamic (especially Turko-Persian) architectural styles, known as

Indo-Islamic architecture

.

• Material: The primary construction material was locally available rubble stone, bonded with lime mortar. The outer surfaces were often faced with dressed red sandstone and marble for decoration.
• Thick and Sloping Walls: The walls were made exceptionally thick and strong. In Tughlaq architecture , in particular, the walls were battered, i.e., sloping inwards, which gave them extra strength.
• Bastions and Battlements: The walls were punctuated at regular intervals with massive circular or polygonal bastions, which were crucial for defense. The tops of the walls featured battlements, behind which soldiers could hide and shoot at the enemy.
• Grand Gateways: Forts had lofty and heavily fortified gateways, often decorated with pointed arches and domes. These not only provided security but also created an impression of royal grandeur.
• Moats: Many forts were surrounded by a deep moat, which was filled with water to prevent the enemy from reaching the walls.
• Indo-Islamic Elements: The Sultans made extensive use of new techniques like the true arch and the true dome in their architecture. These were structurally stronger and aesthetically pleasing.

Key Examples:

The

Fort of Siri

, built by Alauddin Khalji to protect Delhi from the Mongols, and the

Fort of Tughlaqabad

, built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (famous for its massive, sloping walls and grand scale), are outstanding examples of fortification from this period.

Q8. Write short notes on any two of the following in about 200 words each: (a) Khanqah and Sarais (b) Chishti Silsilah (c) Vedantic tradition (d) Dargahs

Ans. (b) Chishti Silsilah The Chishti Silsilah is one of the most influential and popular Sufi orders (silsilah) in India. It was founded in India by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer towards the end of the 12th century. The Chishti saints were known for their liberalism, tolerance, and service to humanity ( khidmat-i-khalq ). They regarded love as the path to reach God and opposed bigotry and religious ostentation. Some key features of the Chishti saints were:

• They generally kept aloof from politics and the state, although they accepted unsolicited grants (futuh).
• They considered music ( sama or qawwali) as an important means of expressing devotion to God.
• They adopted local languages and customs, which made them very popular among the common people.

After Moinuddin Chishti, this tradition was carried forward by great saints like

Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki

(Delhi),

Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar

or

Baba Farid

(Punjab), and

Nizamuddin Auliya

(Delhi). Their dargahs (shrines) remain major pilgrimage sites for people of all faiths even today.

(d) Dargahs

A Dargah is a shrine or tomb built over the grave of a revered religious figure, especially a Sufi saint. The term is derived from Persian and means “portal” or “threshold,” signifying a gateway to the spiritual presence of the saint. After a saint’s death, his tomb becomes a site of pilgrimage (

ziyarat

) and a focus of popular devotion for people from all faiths, including Muslims and Hindus.

Dargahs are not just tombs; they are vibrant centers of religious and cultural activity. They are places for prayer, meditation, and seeking the saint’s blessings (

barakat

). Many dargahs are associated with the practice of devotional music, particularly

qawwali

, which is performed to create a state of spiritual ecstasy. They also function as centers of charity, often running a free community kitchen (

langar

) to feed the poor and pilgrims. Famous examples in India include the Dargah of

Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer

and the Dargah of

Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi

, which attract millions of devotees annually.