IGNOU BHIC-109 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU BHIC-109 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. Discuss the importance of Indic literary traditions in understanding India during Akbar’s reign.

Ans. The reign of Akbar (1556-1605) is renowned not just for political consolidation but also for a vibrant cultural synthesis. While Persian was the official language of the Mughal court, Akbar’s liberal and inclusive policies greatly encouraged the flourishing of various Indic literary traditions . These traditions are invaluable sources for understanding the society, religion, and politics of the period. Sanskrit Literature: Akbar showed a keen interest in Sanskrit, traditionally seen as the language of Hindu scholarship. He commissioned the translation of several Sanskrit texts into Persian. The most significant projects included the translation of the Mahabharata into the Razmnama (Book of Wars) and the Ramayana . Additionally, texts like the Atharvaveda and the mathematical treatise Lilavati were also translated. This translation work was not merely an academic exercise; it was part of Akbar’s larger project of bridging the gap between different faiths and cultures, consistent with his policy of Sulh-i-Kul (Absolute Peace). Braj Bhasha and Awadhi Literature: The vernaculars of Hindi, particularly Braj Bhasha and Awadhi, reached literary heights during this period.

• Braj Bhasha: It became the pre-eminent language for Krishna devotional poetry. Surdas composed his famous work, the Sursagar , in this language. Furthermore, one of Akbar’s navaratnas, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, wrote devotional and ethical couplets in Braj Bhasha, reflecting the deep integration of the Muslim nobility with Indic culture.
• Awadhi: It was in this period that Tulsidas wrote his epic, the Ramcharitmanas , in Awadhi. Although Tulsidas was not a court poet, his work profoundly shaped popular Hinduism and social values in North India. The text provides a window into the religious beliefs and social ideals of the common people of the time.

Importance:

These literary works are significant for several reasons. They reflect the

syncretic

ethos of Akbar’s reign, where different religious and linguistic traditions co-existed and flourished. They provide insights into the influence of the Bhakti and Sufi movements, popular religious practices, and social norms. Ultimately, these Indic literary traditions help us understand Mughal India not as a monolithic Persianate empire, but as a multi-cultural and multi-lingual society.

Q2. Explain the Mughal relations with Persia.

Ans. The relationship between the Mughal Empire and the Safavid Empire of Persia was complex and multi-faceted, marked by a mixture of rivalry, diplomacy, and deep cultural exchange. Both were major powers in the Islamic world, but the Mughals were Sunni while the Safavids were Shia, which added a subtle ideological tension to their relations. Political and Strategic Rivalry: The single biggest point of contention in Mughal-Persian relations was the strategically vital fortress of Qandahar . It lay on the trade routes between India and Central Asia and was a symbol of prestige for both empires.

• Babur held it, but it was lost to the Safavids during Humayun’s reign.
• Akbar regained it through diplomacy in 1595.
• Jahangir lost it to the formidable Shah Abbas I in 1622.
• Shah Jahan launched three unsuccessful military campaigns to recapture it.

This continuous struggle over Qandahar remained a source of constant tension between the two powers.

Diplomatic and Cultural Ties:

Despite the military rivalry, there was a continuous flow of

diplomatic exchange

between the two courts. The exchange of embassies, letters, and lavish gifts was common. A key moment was when Humayun, after being defeated by Sher Shah Suri, took refuge in the court of the Persian Shah Tahmasp. The Shah’s help was instrumental in Humayun regaining his throne, which created a special bond between the two dynasties.

Culturally, the Persian influence on Mughal India was profound.

Persian

was the language of the Mughal court. A large number of Persian scholars, poets, artists, and administrators migrated to the Mughal court and played a significant role in shaping Mughal administration, art, architecture, and literature. The Mughal miniature painting tradition was started by Persian artists brought to India by Humayun. This cultural bond proved to be far more enduring than the rivalry.

In essence, Mughal relations with Persia were a delicate balance. On one hand, there was strategic enmity over Qandahar, but on the other, there was a strong relationship fostered by shared heritage and continuous cultural and diplomatic exchange.

Q3. Analyse the political economy and cultural developments under the Nayaka rule.

Ans. The Nayaka kingdoms (e.g., of Madurai, Tanjore, and Gingee) emerged in South India during the 16th to 18th centuries following the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire. These rulers were originally military governors (nayakas) of Vijayanagara who gradually established their independence. Their rule saw the development of a distinct political-economic system and significant cultural advancements. Political Economy: The Nayaka economy was primarily agrarian, and their political structure was a modified form of the Vijayanagara Nayankara system .

• Nayankara System: Under this system, Nayakas were granted control over territories (amaram) in exchange for maintaining military contingents and remitting annual tribute to the emperor. As the central authority of Vijayanagara weakened, these Nayakas became de facto independent rulers in their territories.
• Revenue and Irrigation: Land revenue was the main source of income. The Nayakas invested heavily in the construction and maintenance of irrigation systems, especially tanks and channels, to boost agricultural production.
• Temple Economy: Temples were major economic institutions under Nayaka rule. They were huge landowners, employed thousands of people, and engaged in lending activities. The Nayakas were great patrons of temples, as this not only conferred religious merit but also legitimised their authority.

Cultural Developments:

The Nayakas continued and enriched the artistic and literary traditions of Vijayanagara.

• Architecture: They developed a magnificent style of Dravidian architecture. It is characterised by massive and ornate gopurams (gateway towers), intricately carved thousand-pillared mandapas (halls), and large temple complexes. The Meenakshi Temple at Madurai and the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam are prime examples of Nayaka architecture.
• Literature: They were great patrons of Telugu and Tamil literature. Raghunatha Nayak of Tanjore was himself a great scholar and musician, and his court was home to many poets and authors.
• Arts and Performing Arts: Miniature painting, music (Carnatic music), and dance, particularly Bharatanatyam , flourished under the patronage of the Nayaka rulers.

In conclusion, the Nayakas managed a political economy centred on agriculture and temple patronage. They not only preserved the cultural heritage of South India but also left their own distinct and lasting mark in the fields of architecture, literature, and the arts.

Q4. Write a note on the Mughal theory of sovereignty.

Ans. The Mughal concept of sovereignty, especially as developed during Akbar’s reign and articulated by Abul Fazl in his Akbarnama , was a unique and powerful ideology. This theory was a synthesis of elements from various sources—Central Asian, Persian, and Indian—tailored to suit the needs of the Mughal Empire. The core of this theory was the concept of ‘Farr-i-Izadi’ (the Divine Light) . According to this idea, kingship was not an ordinary office but a light emanating directly from God that was communicated to the ruler. This light was then transferred from generation to generation to a worthy successor. Key Features:

1. Independence from Clergy: Since sovereignty came directly from God, the emperor was not dependent on religious scholars or the Ulama for his legitimacy. This placed the monarch in a supreme position, above all religious sects and factions, making him the ultimate arbiter in the empire.
2. Paternalistic Absolutism: The ‘Farr-i-Izadi’ portrayed the emperor as a father to his people. His duty was to ensure the spiritual and material well-being of his subjects, provide justice, and protect them from external and internal threats.
3. Sulh-i-Kul (Absolute Peace): This was the moral cornerstone of the Mughal theory of sovereignty. It meant “peace with all.” The ruler’s duty was to ensure that all members of his diverse populace, irrespective of their religion or ethnicity, could live in peace and harmony. This policy provided the ideological justification for Akbar’s inclusive and tolerant policies.
4. Spiritual Guidance: Abul Fazl presented the emperor not just as a temporal ruler but also as a spiritual guide, or ‘Insan-i-Kamil’ (the Perfect Man) . The king was believed to have the ability to bring harmony among the conflicting forces of society.

In short, the Mughal theory of sovereignty was a sophisticated ideology that established the emperor’s position as divinely sanctioned, absolute, and paternalistic towards his multi-religious subjects. It provided the Mughal monarchy with a unique prestige and authority that was instrumental in holding the empire together.

Q5. Explain the evolution and working of the Mansab system under the Mughals.

Ans. The Mansabdari system was the backbone of the Mughal Empire’s administrative and military structure, systematically organised and institutionalised by Akbar around 1571 CE. ‘Mansab’ is an Arabic word meaning ‘rank’ or ‘position’. This system determined the status, salary, and military responsibilities of all senior officials (both military and civil) of the empire. Evolution: The system was not entirely new and its roots can be traced to the decimal system of Genghis Khan and the military organisation of the Delhi Sultanate. However, Akbar transformed it into a unified and rational bureaucratic structure. Initially, it was a single rank, but it was later refined into a dual ranking system of ‘Zat’ and ‘Sawar’ . Working and Key Components:

1. Zat and Sawar:
   • Zat: This rank determined the officer’s personal status, his position in the hierarchy, and his salary. A higher zat meant higher prestige in the court and a larger salary.
   • Sawar: This rank indicated the number of cavalrymen (troopers) that a mansabdar was required to maintain. A mansabdar had to maintain a fixed number of horses and soldiers as per his sawar rank.
2. Salary and Jagir: Mansabdars were paid their salary either in cash ( naqdi ) or in the form of revenue assignments known as jagirs . A jagir was a specific land area from which the mansabdar was entitled to collect revenue to cover his salary. Jagirs were not hereditary and officials were frequently transferred from one jagir to another to prevent them from developing local roots.
3. Military Obligation and Control: Mansabdars had to present their military contingent for periodic inspection. This process involved the system of ‘dagh’ (branding) of horses and ‘chehra’ (descriptive roll) of soldiers to prevent fraud.

Hierarchy and Later Problems:

The mansabs ranged from 10 (the lowest) up to 10,000 (reserved for royal princes). The system worked very efficiently under Akbar, but under later Mughal rulers, it ran into problems. The number of mansabdars increased enormously, but there were not enough productive jagirs to be assigned. This situation, known as the

‘jagirdari crisis’

, played a significant role in weakening the stability of the empire.

Q6. Discuss the land revenue administration under the Mughals.

Ans. Land revenue was the most important source of income for the Mughal Empire, and they built an elaborate and systematic administration to collect it efficiently. During Akbar’s reign, under the leadership of his finance minister Raja Todar Mal , the land revenue system was standardised and rationalised, a system known as the Dahsala System or Zabti System . Main Features of Todar Mal’s Dahsala System:

1. Measurement of Land (Paimaish): The first step in revenue assessment was the accurate measurement of land. For this, a standardised rod of bamboo joined with iron rings, called the ‘tanab’ , was used. This provided a standard unit of measurement.
2. Classification of Land: Land was classified into four categories based on the continuity of cultivation:
   • Polaj: Land which was cultivated every year.
   • Parauti: Land left fallow for a year or two to recover its fertility.
   • Chachar: Land left fallow for three or four years.
   • Banjar: Land that remained uncultivated for five or more years.

   The rate of revenue was different for each category.

3. Fixation of Revenue: To fix the state’s share, an average of local yields and prices for each crop over the past ten years (dah-sala) was calculated. The state’s share was fixed at one-third of this average produce. Peasants were given the option to pay in cash or kind, though the state preferred cash. This schedule of rates was called the ‘dastur-ul-amal’ .

Other Systems:

Although the Zabti system was the most common, other systems like

‘Kankut’

(based on estimate) and

‘Nasaq’

(group assessment) were also prevalent in other parts of the empire.

Revenue Officials:

The revenue administration had a hierarchy of officials. At the centre was the

Diwan-i-Ala

(finance minister), in the provinces was the

Diwan

, and at the local level were the

Amalguzar

(revenue collector),

Qanungo

(keeper of revenue records), and the

Patwari

(village accountant).

In conclusion, the Mughal land revenue administration was a sophisticated system aimed at ensuring a stable and predictable amount of revenue. While it provided the empire with immense financial strength, its rigidity and the potential for misuse by local officials could sometimes lead to peasant oppression.

Q7. Give a brief account of the village community and the various categories of peasants under the Mughals.

Ans. During the Mughal period, India’s society was predominantly rural, and the village community was the basic unit of social and economic life. It was a complex and stratified world comprising various categories of peasants and different functionaries. The Village Community: The Mughal village is often described as a ‘little republic’, being largely self-sufficient. However, it was not an egalitarian community.

• Internal Stratification: There was a clear hierarchy within the village based on land ownership and caste. Some families dominated landholding, while others were landless labourers.
• Village Panchayat: The affairs of the village were usually managed by a panchayat or village council, comprising the leading members of the village. It settled local disputes and organised community works.
• Village Officials: The two key village officials were the Muqaddam (or Mandal) and the Patwari . The Muqaddam was the village headman, responsible for maintaining law and order and collecting land revenue for the state. The Patwari was the village accountant who kept records of land and revenue payments. These officials were usually compensated with parcels of tax-free land.

Categories of Peasants:

The peasantry in Mughal rural society can be broadly divided into three main categories:

1. Khud-kashta: These were resident cultivators who lived in the same village where their land was situated. They owned the land they tilled and had permanent and hereditary rights over it. They were the most privileged class of peasants and sometimes leased out their land to others.
2. Pahi-kashta: These were non-resident cultivators who lived in one village but tilled land in another on a contractual basis. Their rights were less secure than the khud-kashta, and they often moved from place to place seeking better terms.
3. Muzarian: These were landless peasants or tenants who cultivated the lands of khud-kashta peasants or zamindars. They were at the bottom of rural society and had very limited rights. They were often burdened with debt.

Above this structure were the

Zamindars

, a powerful class of intermediaries who held hereditary rights to collect revenue from a number of villages. Overall, the Mughal rural world was a complex social structure with different classes of peasants possessing varying rights and obligations.

Q8. Briefly discuss urban life under the Mughals.

Ans. The Mughal Empire saw a remarkable growth in urbanisation, and its cities became vibrant centres of power, commerce, and culture. A Mughal city was characterised by a diverse population, bustling markets, and an organised administration. Types of Urban Centres: Mughal cities could be broadly classified into several types:

• Administrative and Imperial Capitals: Cities like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri were the nerve centres of the empire. They were marked by forts, palaces, residences of the nobility (havelis), and a large military presence.
• Commercial and Manufacturing Hubs: Cities such as Surat (a major port), Ahmedabad (famous for textiles), and Patna were centres of trade and craft production. These cities had a strong community of merchants, bankers, and artisans.
• Religious and Pilgrimage Centres: Cities like Varanasi, Mathura, and Ajmer grew around important temples or Sufi shrines, attracting pilgrims and religious activities.

Urban Administration and Social Structure:

The administration of the city was in the hands of the

Kotwal

. He was a high-ranking official responsible for maintaining law and order, keeping a register of residents, regulating the markets, and controlling prices. The

Qazi

dispensed justice based on Islamic law.

Urban society was highly stratified:

• The Elite: At the top were the emperor, the royal family, and the nobility ( mansabdars ) who lived in grand havelis and enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle.
• The Middle Strata: This included wealthy merchants (seths, bohras), moneylenders (sarrafs), and various professionals like physicians, scholars, and lower-rank officials.
• The Common People: The bulk of the population consisted of skilled artisans (weavers, masons, goldsmiths), soldiers, servants, and a mass of unskilled labourers.

Economic and Cultural Life:

The heart of the city was its

bazaar

(market), which bustled with commercial activity. There were specialised markets for different goods. The royal

karkhanas

(workshops) produced luxury goods for the court. The cities were also centres of art, architecture, music, and literature, where poets, artists, and musicians thrived under royal and noble patronage. Mughal cities were truly melting pots of economic opportunity and cultural vibrancy.