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IGNOU BUDC-110 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. Define criticism and throw light on its aims and objectives.

Ans. The word ‘Tanqeed’ (Criticism) originates from Arabic, where its literal meaning is to test the pure from the impure, to examine, and to determine the value of something. In literary terminology, criticism refers to the art or science through which a literary creation is analyzed to highlight its merits and demerits, and its place in literature is determined. Criticism is not merely about finding faults; rather, it is a creative process that helps in understanding, interpreting, and evaluating a work of art. The aims and objectives of criticism are vast and varied, some of which are as follows:

• Interpretation and Elucidation: The primary objective of criticism is to clarify the meaning, thought, and art of a literary work for the common reader. It unfolds the complex aspects of the creation.
• Evaluation: The critic, in the light of literary principles, determines how successful or unsuccessful a work is from a literary standpoint. It teaches how to distinguish between good and bad literature.
• Formulation of Literary Principles: Criticism also serves to create and clarify literary principles and theories. It explains what poetry is, what a short story is, and what their artistic demands are.
• Guidance for Writers: A good critic guides authors and poets. By pointing out their shortcomings, they encourage them to write better. Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali’s ‘Muqaddama-e-Sher-o-Shayari’ is an excellent example of this.
• Cultivation of Literary Taste: Criticism refines and cultivates the literary taste of readers. It teaches them how literature should be read and understood.

In essence, the purpose of criticism is to promote literature, to understand and explain it, and to preserve the literary heritage. It acts as a bridge between the literary work and the reader.

Q2. What is meant by Impressionistic Criticism? Describe its characteristics.

Ans. Impressionistic Criticism (Ta’assurati Tanqeed) is a type of criticism in which the critic describes the impressions and feelings formed in their mind after reading a literary work. In this approach, the critic relies on their personal taste, likes-dislikes, and intuition rather than strictly adhering to literary principles and rules. According to the French writer Anatole France, “The good critic is he who relates the adventures of his soul among masterpieces.” The main characteristics of impressionistic criticism are:

• Subjectivity and Inwardness: This criticism is entirely personal and subjective. The critic’s judgment is based on their own taste and temperament, not on any external standard.
• Avoidance of Principles: The impressionistic critic does not give importance to pre-established critical principles. For them, the ultimate touchstone is their own feeling and impression.
• Literary and Poetic Language: Since this criticism is an expression of feelings, its language is often literary, poetic, and creative rather than academic and scientific. The critic themselves writes in the style of an artist.
• Reflection of a Creative Process: It gives the critic the freedom to be inspired by the original work and create a new piece of creative writing in response.
• Importance of the Reader: This criticism emphasizes that the meaning of a work is what the reader derives from it.

In Urdu, prominent exponents of impressionistic criticism include

Niaz Fatehpuri, Mehdi Afadi,

and

Abdur Rahman Bijnori

. While writing about Ghalib, Bijnori famously said, “There are two revealed books in India – the sacred Vedas and the Diwan-e-Ghalib.” This sentence is a masterpiece of impressionistic criticism. Although this form of criticism is often accused of being non-standard and purely personal, it has played a significant role in understanding the aesthetic aspects of literature.

Q3. Define Simile and Metaphor and clarify the difference between them with examples.

Ans. Tashbeeh (Simile) and Isti’ara (Metaphor) are two of the most important and fundamental terms in Ilm-e-Bayan (Rhetoric). Both relate to describing one thing as being like another, but their methods are distinctly different. Tashbeeh (Simile): In Arabic, ‘Tashbeeh’ means ‘to make similar’ or ‘to declare one thing as being like another.’ In rhetorical terms, a simile is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another on the basis of a shared quality. A simile has five components (Arkan) :

1. Mushabbah: The thing being compared.
2. Mushabbah bihi: The thing to which it is compared.
3. Wajh-e-shabah: The shared quality or point of comparison.
4. Gharz-e-tashbeeh: The purpose of the comparison.
5. Harf-e-tashbeeh: The word of comparison (e.g., like, as, sa, ki tarah).

Example:

“Naazuki uske lab ki kya kahiye / Pankhri ik gulaab ki si hai” (Mir Taqi Mir). (What can be said of the delicacy of her lips / They are like a rose petal). Here, the beloved’s lips (Mushabbah) are compared to a rose petal (Mushabbah bihi) for their delicacy (Wajh-e-shabah) using the word ‘si’ (Harf-e-tashbeeh).

Isti’ara (Metaphor):

‘Isti’ara’ literally means ‘to borrow’. In rhetoric, a metaphor is when a word originally used for one thing is ‘borrowed’ for another, with an underlying relationship of simile between them. In a metaphor, the word of comparison is omitted, and one thing is declared to be the other. It is a form of

implied simile

.

Example:

“Patta patta boota boota haal hamara jaane hai / Jaane na jaane gul hi na jaane baagh to saara jaane hai”. (Every leaf, every plant knows my condition / Only the flower doesn’t know, the whole garden knows). In this couplet, the word ‘gul’ (flower) is used as a metaphor for the beloved. The poet calls the beloved a ‘flower’, not ‘like a flower’.

Difference:

• In a simile, both the Mushabbah and Mushabbah bihi are mentioned and linked by a word of comparison. In a metaphor, only the Mushabbah bihi is mentioned, and the Mushabbah is implied.
• A simile means ‘A is like B’, whereas a metaphor means ‘A is B’.
• A metaphor contains more exaggeration (mubaligha) and force than a simile, and is therefore considered more eloquent (baligh).

Q4. Explain the importance of Hali’s “Muqaddama-e-Sher-o-Shayari” in the evolution of Urdu criticism.

Ans. Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali’s work “Muqaddama-e-Sher-o-Shayari” (Preface to Poetry, 1893) holds the status of a milestone in the evolution of Urdu criticism. It is widely acknowledged as the first formal book of Urdu criticism and the first manifesto of modern Urdu criticism. Before Hali, criticism in Urdu was largely confined to ‘Tazkiras’ (biographical anthologies), which contained biographical details of poets and opinions on their poetry based merely on personal taste. Hali was the first to present formal principles and theories for evaluating poetry. The importance of the Muqaddama can be understood through these points:

• Principle Formulation: For the first time, Hali debated the nature of poetry, its purpose, and its requisites. He established rules and principles for Urdu poetry in the light of Western critical thought.
• Purpose of Poetry: Hali did not consider poetry merely a source of pleasure but declared it a purposeful and reformist act. He argued that poetry should be used for the betterment of the nation and society.
• The Three Conditions: Hali proposed three fundamental conditions for good poetry:
  1. Takhyyul (Imagination): The power that creates new ideas.
  2. Mutala-e-Kainat (Study of the Universe): The poet’s experience and observation should be vast.
  3. Tafahhus-e-Alfaz (Scrutiny of Words): The selection of appropriate and suitable words.
• Practical Criticism: In the second part of the Muqaddama, Hali applied his theories to analyze genres like the Ghazal, Qasida, and Masnavi. He offered practical criticism on the works of great poets like Mir, Sauda, and Ghalib. He condemned the traditional themes of the ghazal, such as romantic love and hyperbole, and stressed the need to broaden its thematic scope.

Although many of Hali’s ideas, especially regarding the ghazal, were later criticized, it cannot be denied that “Muqaddama-e-Sher-o-Shayari” gave Urdu criticism a new direction and dignity. It elevated criticism from the level of Tazkira-writing to that of a formal discipline and paved the way for future critics.

Q5. Define Rhetoric and throw light on its types (Ilm-e-Bayan, Ilm-e-Badi).

Ans. Balaghat (Rhetoric) is an Arabic word derived from ‘b-l-gh’, meaning ‘to reach’. In literary terms, rhetoric refers to that quality of speech or writing through which a speaker or writer presents their point in such a way that it is not only clear and lucid (Fasahat) but also appropriate to the context and leaves a deep impact on the listener or reader. In simple terms, rhetoric means speaking effectively and beautifully . Its aim is not just to convey meaning, but to convey it in the best possible way. Experts in rhetoric have divided it into two major types:

1. Ilm-e-Bayan (The Science of Elucidation): ‘Bayan’ means ‘to unfold’ or ‘to clarify’. Ilm-e-Bayan is the science that deals with the different ways of expressing a single idea or meaning. Each of these ways differs from the others in its degree of clarity. It is concerned with the semantic beauty of speech, i.e., in how many different and beautiful ways a point can be made. Ilm-e-Bayan has four pillars:
   • Tashbeeh (Simile): To state that one thing is like another based on a shared quality.
   • Isti’ara (Metaphor): To declare one thing to be another thing outright.
   • Majaz-e-Mursal (Metonymy/Synecdoche): To use a word in a figurative sense where the relationship between the literal and figurative meaning is not one of resemblance.
   • Kinaya (Innuendo/Implication): To say something while meaning its implied or non-literal sense.
2. Ilm-e-Badi’ (The Science of Rhetorical Figures): ‘Badi” means ‘novel’ or ‘new’. Ilm-e-Badi’ is the science through which one learns the methods of creating beauty and charm in speech. It is concerned with the external and internal ornamentation of discourse. These methods are called ‘Sanai’ (plural of ‘San’at’). It has two major types:
   • Sanai-e-Lafzi (Verbal Figures): Beauties based on words, such as pun (Tajnees), rhyme (Saj’), derivation (Ishtiqaq), etc.
   • Sanai-e-Ma’navi (Semantic Figures): Beauties related to meaning, such as antithesis (Tazad), association (Mura’at-un-Nazeer), allusion (Talmih), poetic reason (Husn-e-Ta’leel), etc.

In short, Ilm-e-Bayan teaches the methods of clarifying meaning, while Ilm-e-Badi’ teaches the techniques to beautify that clarified meaning. Together, they make the discourse ‘Baligh’ (eloquent and effective).

Q6. Determine the position of Kaleemuddin Ahmed as a critic.

Ans. Kaleemuddin Ahmed is counted among the most important and simultaneously most controversial critics of modern Urdu literature. He attempted to evaluate Urdu literature in the light of Western critical principles, particularly the theories of the English critic F.R. Leavis. His criticism was strict, forthright, and often bitter, for which he faced intense opposition in Urdu literary circles. The position of Kaleemuddin Ahmed as a critic can be understood through the following points:

• Application of Western Principles: Due to his education in English literature, Kaleemuddin Ahmed was the first to systematically judge Urdu literature by Western critical standards. He rejected impressionistic and traditional criticism, laying the foundation for scientific, analytical, and objective criticism.
• Harsh and Frank Opinions: He made no concessions in his judgments. His famous and harsh statements are still quoted today, such as:
  • “Ghazal is a semi-barbaric genre of poetry.”
  • “The existence of Urdu criticism is purely fictional.”
  • He described Hali’s criticism as ‘incomplete’ and Shibli’s ‘Mawazna-e-Anis-o-Dabir’ as ‘uncritical’.
• Elevating Criticism to a Discipline: Despite these severities, his greatest achievement is that he turned criticism in Urdu into a serious academic pursuit. He insisted that a critic’s job is not just to praise but to conduct a deep analysis of a work of art to determine its literary value.
• Extensive Works: He wrote several important books like “Urdu Shayari Par Ek Nazar” (A Look at Urdu Poetry), “Urdu Tanqeed Par Ek Nazar” (A Look at Urdu Criticism), “Amali Tanqeed” (Practical Criticism), and “Sukhanha-e-Guftani,” which played a crucial role in shaping the direction of Urdu criticism.

In conclusion, Kaleemuddin Ahmed was an ‘iconoclast’ of Urdu criticism. He shattered the sacred idols of Urdu literature to open new and healthy paths for critical thought. One may disagree with his harsh attitude, but his services in providing modern and academic foundations to Urdu criticism cannot be ignored.

Q7. Define Prosody and explain its basic terminologies (e.g., Sabab, Watad, Fasila).

Ans. Ilm-e-Arooz (Prosody) is the science that explains the principles and methods for examining the meter (wazn) of poetry. This science determines whether a piece of writing is metrical (mauzun) or non-metrical (na-mauzun), and if metrical, in which meter (behr) it is composed. In simple terms, it is the science of poetic meter or versification. Its purpose is to create a specific rhythm (aahang) and musicality (tarannum) in poetry, making it pleasing to the ear. The founder of this science was Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi. The foundation of prosody rests on the movement and non-movement (harkat-o-sakanaat) of letters. Some of its basic terminologies are as follows:

• Harf-e-Mutaharrik: A letter with a vowel sound (zabar, zer, or pesh). In prosody, it is represented by ‘1’ or a vertical line ‘|’.
• Harf-e-Sakin: A letter without a vowel, which is pronounced with the preceding vowelled letter. It is represented by ‘2’ or a horizontal line ‘-‘ or ‘o’.
• Sabab (Cause): A unit of two letters. It has two types:
  • Sabab-e-Khafeef: A group of one vowelled and one unvowelled letter (1+2). For example: ‘dil’, ‘lab’, ‘jaan’. Its weight is ’12’.
  • Sabab-e-Saqeel: A group of two vowelled letters (1+1). For example: ‘tera’ (te+ra). It is used in Arabic, but not in Urdu/Persian.
• Watad (Peg): A unit of three letters. It also has two types:
  • Watad-e-Majmu’: A group of two vowelled and one unvowelled letter (1+1+2). For example: ‘qalam’, ‘asar’, ‘nazar’. Its weight is ‘112’.
  • Watad-e-Mafruq: A group of one vowelled, one unvowelled, and one vowelled letter (1+2+1). For example: ‘subh ko’. It is also rarely used in Urdu.
• Fasila (Interval): A unit of four or five letters.
  • Fasila-e-Sughra: A group of three vowelled and one unvowelled letter (1+1+1+2). For example: ‘bulbulon’ (bul-bu-lon). Its weight is ‘1112’.
  • Fasila-e-Kubra: A group of four vowelled and one unvowelled letter (1+1+1+1+2). This is almost non-existent in Urdu.

Various combinations of these Sabab, Watad, and Fasila form the metrical feet called

Arkan

(plural of ‘rukn’) (e.g., Failatun, Mufailun), and the arrangement of these Arkan forms a

Behr

(meter). The process of scanning a line of poetry against the weight of these Arkan is called

‘Taqti’

.

Q8. Write short notes on any two of the following: (a) San’at-e-Tazad (b) San’at-e-Mura’at-un-Nazeer (c) Tajnees

Ans. (a) San’at-e-Tazad (Antithesis): ‘Tazad’ means opposition or being opposite. In the terminology of Ilm-e-Badi’ (Rhetoric), San’at-e-Tazad means the use of two words in a line of poetry that are opposite in meaning. The use of this figure of speech creates emphasis, beauty, and a particular charm in the meaning of the couplet. It is also known as ‘Tibaq’ and ‘Mutabiqa’. For instance, this famous couplet by Akbar Allahabadi: “Subh hoti hai shaam hoti hai / Umr yunhi tamaam hoti hai” (Morning comes, evening comes / Life just passes away like this). In this couplet, ‘subh’ (morning) and ‘shaam’ (evening) are two opposite words brought together beautifully to express the concept of passing time and the end of life. Another example: “Qareeb hai yaaro roz-e-mahshar, chhupega kushton ka khoon kyonkar / Jo chup rahegi zabaan-e-khanjar, lahu pukarega aasteen ka” (Friends, the Day of Judgment is near, how will the blood of the slain be hidden? / If the tongue of the dagger stays silent, the blood on the sleeve will cry out). Here, there is a semantic antithesis between ‘zabaan’ (tongue/speaking) and ‘chup rehna’ (to be silent), which enhances the couplet’s impact. (b) San’at-e-Mura’at-un-Nazeer (Association of Related Words): ‘Mura’at’ means ‘to observe’ or ‘to be mindful of’, and ‘Nazeer’ means ‘example’ or ‘similar thing’. In rhetoric, Mura’at-un-Nazeer is the figure of speech where a poet gathers words in a couplet that have a natural relationship or association with each other, but this relationship is not one of antithesis or contradiction. It involves mentioning things that are thematically linked. For example, mentioning a flower, leaf, thorn, and nightingale in the context of a garden. This famous couplet by Mir Taqi Mir is an excellent example: “Patta patta, boota boota, haal hamara jaane hai / Jaane na jaane gul hi na jaane, baagh to saara jaane hai” (Every leaf, every plant knows my condition / Only the flower doesn’t know, the whole garden knows). In this couplet, ‘patta’ (leaf), ‘boota’ (plant), ‘gul’ (flower), and ‘baagh’ (garden) are words that have a natural association, and together they complete the imagery of a garden. This figure of speech creates a sense of harmony and flow in the couplet and makes the expression more natural and effective. It is one of the most frequently used figures of speech in Urdu poetry. (c) Tajnees (Pun): ‘Tajnees’ means ‘to be of the same kind’ or ‘homogeneity’. It is a verbal figure of speech. When a poet uses two words in their work that are identical or similar in writing and/or pronunciation but have different meanings, it is called San’at-e-Tajnees . It creates verbal beauty and ambiguity (double meaning) in the text. It has several types, the most important of which is ‘Tajnees-e-Taam’. Tajnees-e-Taam (Perfect Pun): In this, the two words are identical in both writing and pronunciation, but their meanings are different. Example: “Jaan di, di hui usi ki thi / Haq to yeh hai ke haq ada na hua” (I gave my life, it was given by Him / The truth (haq) is that the duty (haq) was not fulfilled). In this couplet, the word ‘haq’ appears twice. The first ‘haq’ means ‘truth’, and the second ‘haq’ means ‘duty’ or ‘right’. The words are the same, but the meanings are different. Another example: “Woh magas ko kabhi na karne dein / Jo do gaz zameen ke maalik hon” Here, the word ‘gaz’ has two meanings: one, a unit of length (two yards of land). The second, ‘to sting’ or ‘to harm’ (as a fly/magas does). This figure of speech showcases the poet’s mastery over words.