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Q1. Critically examine the different theories regarding the origin of the Urdu language.

Ans. There are several differing views among linguists regarding the origin and genesis of the Urdu language. Over time, they have presented various theories. Some of the major theories are as follows:

• Muhammad Husain Azad’s Theory: Maulana Muhammad Husain Azad, in his famous book ‘Aab-e-Hayat’ , proposed the theory that “the Urdu language originated from Braj Bhasha”. He believed that Urdu’s structure and grammatical framework are based on Braj Bhasha, into which Arabic and Persian words were incorporated. However, this theory is no longer accepted because there are fundamental structural differences between Urdu and Braj Bhasha.
• Mehmood Shirani’s Theory: Hafiz Mehmood Shirani, in his book ‘Punjab Mein Urdu’ (Urdu in Punjab), tried to prove that the birthplace of Urdu is Punjab. He argued that when Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Punjab in the 11th century, a new language emerged from the interaction of the local Punjabi language and the Persian of the Muslims, which later reached Delhi and came to be known as Urdu. He also highlighted grammatical similarities between the two languages. This theory is considered more substantial than Azad’s.
• Syed Sulaiman Nadvi’s Theory: Syed Sulaiman Nadvi, in his book ‘Nuqoosh-e-Sulaimani’ , presented the view that Urdu was born in Sindh. His argument was that Arabs first arrived in Sindh, and it was here that the first form of Urdu was developed through the intermingling of Arabic and the local Sindhi language. However, this theory did not gain wide acceptance either, as the influence of the language formed in Sindh remained largely confined to that region.
• Masud Husain Khan’s Theory: This is the most modern and widely accepted theory. Dr. Masud Husain Khan, in his book ‘Muqaddama-e-Tarikh-e-Zaban-e-Urdu’ , proved on linguistic principles that the birthplace of Urdu is the region of Delhi and its environs (Nawah-e-Delhi) . According to him, the true source of Urdu is Khari Boli , which was spoken around Delhi and Meerut. When Muslims arrived and settled in Delhi, a new language developed by incorporating Arabic and Persian words into Khari Boli, which was later called Urdu. This theory is considered the most scientific and valid today.

In summary, although various scholars have pointed to Punjab, Sindh, and the Deccan as the birthplace of Urdu, from a linguistic perspective,

Masud Husain Khan’s

theory—that Urdu is based on Khari Boli and was born in Delhi—is the most rational and accepted.

Q2. Write a detailed note on the promotion/development of Urdu language and literature in the Deccan.

Ans. The Deccan holds the distinction of being the first centre (markaz) of Urdu language and literature. When Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted his capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Deccan) in the 14th century, many scholars, Sufis, soldiers, and common people from North India also moved to the Deccan. Through these people, the language spoken in Delhi, known as ‘Hindavi’ or ‘Dehlavi’, reached the Deccan. There, under the influence of local languages like Marathi, Telugu, and Kannada, this language took on a new form called ‘Deccani’ . The development of Urdu literature in the Deccan can be viewed under three major sultanates:

1. The Bahmani Period (1347-1527): This was the initial phase of Urdu literature in the Deccan. The most important figure of this era is Hazrat Khwaja Banda Nawaz Gesudaraz . To convey his religious and spiritual ideas to the common people, he wrote several treatises in Deccani prose (nasr), among which ‘Meraj-ul-Ashiqin’ is considered the first prose book in Urdu.
2. The Adil Shahi Period (1490-1686): The Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur provided great patronage to the Deccani language and literature. Ibrahim Adil Shah II was a poet himself and composed a significant work in Deccani titled ‘Kitab-e-Nauras’ . The greatest poet (shayar) of this period was Nusrati , who wrote famous masnavis (long narrative poems) like ‘Gulshan-e-Ishq’ , ‘Ali Nama’ , and ‘Tarikh-e-Sikandari’ .
3. The Qutb Shahi Period (1518-1687): The Qutb Shahi Sultanate of Golconda is considered the golden age of Urdu literature. The rulers of this sultanate were themselves poets and patrons of literature. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah , the fifth ruler of this dynasty, was the first ‘Sahib-e-Diwan’ (a poet with a compiled collection of poetry) poet of Urdu. His Kulliyat (collected works) includes ghazals, nazms, marsiyas, and qasidas. Another great writer of this era was Mulla Wajhi , who wrote the masterpiece of Deccani prose, ‘Sab Ras’ , in 1635, and a masnavi titled ‘Qutub Mushtari’ .

Thus, the Deccan not only gave a literary form to the Urdu language but also developed various genres of poetry and prose, which later provided a solid foundation for the Urdu literature of North India (Shimali Hind).

Q3. Shed light on the origin and evolution of Urdu poetry (Nazm) in North India.

Ans. The development of Urdu Nazm (poem) in North India occurred in several stages. Although poetry was in vogue much earlier, the tradition of systematically composing nazms was established later. Early Period: The beginning of Urdu poetry in North India is traced to the 18th century when the diwan (poetic collection) of Vali Deccani reached Delhi. Before this, poets like Amir Khusrau had composed in ‘Hindavi’, but the primary medium for poetry was Persian. After Vali, the ghazal dominated the literary scene in Delhi, but alongside it, some poets also composed in other genres of nazm like masnavi, qasida, and marsiya. The most important nazm poet of this era is Nazeer Akbarabadi . He is called the ‘Awami Shayar’ (people’s poet) because he wrote nazms in simple language on the lives of common people, festivals (Holi, Diwali), seasons, and social themes (like Banjaranama, Aadmi Nama). The Dawn of Jadeed Nazm: The real revolution in Urdu nazm came in the latter half of the 19th century. After the revolt of 1857, a new consciousness arose in society. Under the banner of the Anjuman-e-Punjab in Lahore, Muhammad Husain Azad and Altaf Husain Hali laid the foundation of ‘Jadeed Nazm’ (modern poetry) as an alternative to the traditional ghazal. They emphasized writing poems on new subjects like natural scenes, social reform, morality, and patriotism. Hali’s ‘Musaddas-e-Hali’ (Madd-o-Jazr-e-Islam) and Azad’s nazms are prime examples of this new trend. The Twentieth Century and Beyond: In the 20th century, Allama Iqbal took Urdu nazm to new heights. Through his poems, he addressed profound subjects like philosophy, politics, selfhood (Khudi), and Islamic awakening. His nazms like ‘Shikwa’ , ‘Jawab-e-Shikwa’ , and ‘Masjid-e-Qurtuba’ are milestones in Urdu poetry. After Iqbal, the Taraqqi Pasand Tehreek (Progressive Writers’ Movement) gave nazm a new social and political dimension. Poets like Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Sardar Jafri, Makhdoom Mohiuddin, and Sahir Ludhianvi gave voice to themes of exploitation, injustice, freedom, and revolution in their poems. New experiments like Azad Nazm (Free Verse) and Nasri Nazm (Prose Poem) also emerged during this period. Thus, Urdu nazm in North India has traveled a long journey and continues to evolve even today.

Q4. Examine the literary services of Fort William College.

Ans. Fort William College was established in 1800 AD in Calcutta by the then Governor-General, Lord Wellesley. The primary objective of this college was to teach Indian languages, culture, and customs to the British officers of the East India Company so that they could run the administration effectively. Although its purpose was administrative, the college inadvertently played a historic role in the development of modern Urdu prose (nasr). The literary services of Fort William College are as follows:

• Promotion of Simple Prose: Before the establishment of the college, Urdu prose was heavily influenced by the complex and ornate style of Persian, which was difficult for common people to understand. The head of the college’s Hindustani department, Dr. John Gilchrist , insisted on preparing books whose language was simple, fluent, and close to common parlance. This effort steered Urdu prose away from complexity towards simplicity and naturalness.
• Important Compositions (Tasnifat): Gilchrist appointed several Indian scholars and writers to write and translate books. These authors produced many important works that are still a valuable part of Urdu literature.
  • Mir Amman Dehlvi: His book ‘Bagh-o-Bahar’ (1803) is the most famous and successful creation of Fort William College. It is a simple Urdu translation of ‘Qissa-e-Chahar Darvesh’. Its language is so natural and idiomatic that it is still considered a model of ideal prose.
  • Haidar Bakhsh Haidri: He wrote several books, including ‘Araish-e-Mahfil’ (the story of Hatim Tai) and ‘Tota Kahani’ .
  • Sher Ali Afsos: He wrote ‘Bagh-e-Urdu’ (a translation of Saadi’s Gulistan).
  • Nihal Chand Lahori: He composed ‘Mazhab-e-Ishq’ (the story of Gul-e-Bakawali).
• Urdu Grammar and Lexicography: Dr. Gilchrist himself worked on Urdu grammar (qawaid) and dictionary (lughat). His ‘A Dictionary: English and Hindoostanee’ and ‘A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language’ were early and significant efforts in this direction.

In conclusion, Fort William College gave a new direction to Urdu prose. It transformed prose from being merely a thing of literature and entertainment into a practical medium of communication. It laid the foundation for a simple and effective prose style on which the edifice of modern Urdu prose stands today.

Q5. (a) The relationship between Urdu and Khari Boli

Ans. The relationship between Urdu and Khari Boli is profound and inseparable. According to modern linguists, especially Dr. Masud Husain Khan , the fundamental base and structure of Urdu is Khari Boli itself. Khari Boli was the dialect spoken in the regions around Delhi, Meerut, Bijnor, and Saharanpur. When Muslims arrived in India in the 12th-13th centuries and made Delhi their capital, they needed a common language to communicate with the local population. At that time, Khari Boli was prevalent around Delhi. A new language was born from the intermingling of the Muslims’ language, Persian (and Turkish, Arabic), and the local Khari Boli. Initially, the grammar and verb forms of this new language were entirely based on Khari Boli , but a large number of Arabic and Persian words were incorporated into its vocabulary. This very language later came to be known as ‘Hindavi’, ‘Rekhta’, ‘Deccani’, and eventually ‘Urdu’. Thus, Urdu and Khari Boli are two sister languages originating from the same source (Shauraseni Apabhramsha). Their grammatical structure, syntax, and verbs are identical. The main difference lies in the script (Rasm-ul-Khat) and vocabulary (Zakhira-e-Alfaz) . Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and has a higher proportion of Perso-Arabic loanwords, while Hindi (whose standard form is also Khari Boli) is written in the Devanagari script and uses more loanwords from Sanskrit.

Q5. (b) Amir Khusrau

Ans. Hazrat Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) was a great scholar, musician, Sufi saint, and poet of the 13th and 14th centuries. He is also known as ‘Tuti-e-Hind’ (The Parrot of India). Although he was primarily a Persian poet, he also composed poetry in the common language spoken in and around Delhi at the time, which he called ‘Hindavi’ or ‘Dehlavi’. This ‘Hindavi’ is considered the earliest form of Urdu. Amir Khusrau’s contribution to Urdu literature can be understood through the following points:

• He is considered the first poet of Urdu.
• He wrote riddles (paheliyan), quibbles (kah-mukarniyan), couplets (dohe) , and songs (geet) in Hindavi for the entertainment and edification of the common people.
• His famous work ‘Khaliq Bari’ is a versified dictionary containing synonymous words in Arabic, Persian, and Hindavi. It was written with the aim of teaching language to children.
• Some of his ghazals have one line in Persian and the next in Hindavi, which is a wonderful example of the confluence of two languages, such as: “Zehal-e-miskin makun taghaful, duraye naina banaye batiyan.”

Amir Khusrau deliberately adopted the language of the common people and made it a medium of literary expression, thereby laying a solid foundation for the development of Urdu.

Q5. (c) The Delhi School of Poetry

Ans. ‘Dabistan-e-Delhi’ or the ‘Delhi School of Poetry’ refers to the specific style and ideology of Urdu poetry that developed in Delhi during the 18th and 19th centuries. This was an era when Delhi was a victim of political and social turmoil. The Mughal Empire was declining, and the city was repeatedly ravaged by foreign invasions (like those of Nader Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali). This destruction and uncertainty had a profound impact on the poetry of Delhi’s poets. The main characteristics (khususiyat) of the Delhi School are:

• Dakhiliyat (Internalism/Subjectivity): The poetry focuses more on the poet’s inner sorrow, pain, and emotions rather than the external world.
• Tasawwuf and Morality: Poets like Mir Dard gave prominence to Sufism and spiritual themes in their poetry.
• Simplicity and Naturalness: The language was simple, fluent, and close to common speech. Artifice and excessive ornamentation were avoided.
• Haqiqat-pasandi (Realism): The poetry reflects the realities of life, sorrow, pain, and social decline.
• Balanced Portrayal of Love: In love, the emphasis is on purity, sorrow, and despair rather than lust.

The leading poets of this school include

Mir Taqi Mir

(called ‘Khuda-e-Sukhan’ or God of Poetry),

Khwaja Mir Dard

,

Mirza Muhammad Rafi Sauda

, and in the later period,

Mirza Ghalib

,

Momin

, and

Zauq

.

Q5. (d) The contribution of Sufi saints in the early growth and development of the Urdu language.

Ans. The contribution of Sufi saints (Sufia-e-Kiram) to the early development and spread of the Urdu language is extremely significant. The main objective of the Sufis was to convey the teachings of Islam and their spiritual message to the common people. At that time, the language of scholars and rulers was Persian, which the general public did not understand. Therefore, to reach the hearts of the people, the Sufis used their language, i.e., the local dialects. When Sufi saints traveled from North India to distant regions like the Deccan, Gujarat, and Bengal, they took the ‘Khari Boli’ or ‘Hindavi’ spoken around Delhi with them. There, they also incorporated words from local languages into their speech. In this way, this mixed language spread throughout India through them.

• The couplets of Baba Farid Ganj-e-Shakar (12th-13th century), which are a mixture of Punjabi and Khari Boli, are counted among the earliest specimens of Urdu.
• In the Deccan, Khwaja Banda Nawaz Gesudaraz (14th-15th century) wrote books like ‘Meraj-ul-Ashiqin’ in the common Deccani language so that people could easily understand religious matters.
• Similarly, Deccani Sufis like Shah Miran Ji Shams-ul-Ushshaq and Shah Burhanuddin Janam also produced many works in prose and poetry.

The aim of these Sufis was not to create literary works but to propagate their ideas. However, their efforts inadvertently strengthened the foundation of the Urdu language and gave it a pan-Indian character.

Q5. (e) Linguistic features of Deccani.

Ans. Deccani is the early form of Urdu that developed in the Deccan (South India) from the 14th to the 18th century. It was based on the Khari Boli of North India, but due to the influence of local languages like Marathi, Telugu, and Kannada, it developed several distinct linguistic features (lisani khususiyat). These features distinguish it from the Urdu of North India (Shimali Hind). Some of the main linguistic features of Deccani are as follows:

• Phonetic Features (Sautiyati Khususiyat):
  • Instead of the diphthongs ‘ai’ (ऐ) and ‘au’ (औ), ‘a-i’ and ‘a-u’ were used, e.g., ‘bail’ (बैल) was pronounced ‘ba-il’.
  • The ‘h’ sound was often dropped, e.g., ‘nahin’ (नहीं) became ‘nai’.
  • At the end of words, ‘ye’ (ए) was often used instead of ‘alif’ (आ), e.g., ‘bola’ (बोला) became ‘bolya’ or ‘bolye’.
• Morphological Features (Sarfi Khususiyat):
  • The suffix ‘aan’ (आं) was widely used to form plurals (jama), e.g., ‘kitab’ to ‘kitabaan’, ‘baat’ to ‘baataan’.
  • There was a tendency to form sentences without the auxiliary verbs ‘hai’ or ‘hain’, e.g., ‘wo aaya’ (he has come).
  • Along with Perso-Arabic words, a large number of words from Sanskrit and local languages were also used.

These features give Deccani a unique and archaic character. All these characteristics can be clearly seen in the works of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, Wajhi, and Nusrati.

Q5. (f) Insha Allah Khan ‘Insha’

Ans. Insha Allah Khan ‘Insha’ (1752-1817) was a highly talented and multifaceted personality in Urdu literature. He was one of the leading poets and prose writers of the Dabistan-e-Lucknow (Lucknow School). His father was a physician, and his family moved from Murshidabad to Delhi and then to Lucknow. Insha had a mastery of several languages, including Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Urdu. His contribution to Urdu literature is diverse:

1. Poetry: Insha was a brilliant poet and composed poetry in ghazal, qasida, and other genres. His poetry clearly displays the characteristics of the Lucknow School, such as wordplay, emphasis on diction, and externalism. He often engaged in poetic rivalries with his contemporaries, such as Mushafi.
2. Prose (Nasr): In prose, Insha did two important and unique works:
   • ‘Rani Ketki ki Kahani’: This is a unique experiment in Urdu prose. Insha wrote this story on the condition that not a single word of Arabic or Persian would be used. Its language is pure Hindustani (Khari Boli).
   • ‘Darya-e-Latafat’: He wrote this book in Persian in collaboration with Mirza Qateel. It is the first detailed and important book on Urdu grammar (qawaid) and idioms. It also elaborately explains the differences between the language of Delhi and Lucknow.

Insha’s genius and his command of language were unique, but his life ended tragically, and he spent his last days in poverty and obscurity.

Q5. (g) Bagh-o-Bahar

Ans. ‘Bagh-o-Bahar’ is a timeless prose (nasri) work of Urdu literature. It is the most famous and important book written at Fort William College, Calcutta. Its author is Mir Amman Dehlvi . The book was published in 1803. ‘Bagh-o-Bahar’ is an Urdu translation of Amir Khusrau’s Persian work ‘Qissa-e-Chahar Darvesh’ (The Tale of the Four Dervishes). Dr. John Gilchrist, the head of Fort William College, assigned Mir Amman the task of rendering this tale into simple, fluent, and “the common speech of Delhi” so that British officers could understand it easily. The main reasons for its fame and importance are its language and style. Its characteristics are:

• Simple and Fluent Language: Mir Amman abandoned the complex and ornate style of Persian and used a language that is very simple and flowing.
• Idiomatic Language: The book is full of the everyday idioms and proverbs of Delhi, which brought its language to life.
• Vivid Portrayal: Mir Amman has portrayed the characters and events so vividly that a picture forms in the reader’s mind.

The success of ‘Bagh-o-Bahar’ opened a new path for Urdu prose. It proved that high-quality literature could also be created in simple and colloquial language. For this reason, it is still considered the finest example of ideal Urdu prose.

Q5. (h) Aligarh Movement

Ans. The Aligarh Movement was a social, educational, and literary movement initiated by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) in the latter half of the 19th century. After the failure of the 1857 revolt, the social, economic, and political condition of Indian Muslims had deteriorated significantly. Sir Syed believed that the only way for the progress of Muslims was to acquire modern Western education and build cooperative relations with the British. The main objectives of this movement were:

1. To inspire Indian Muslims to acquire modern science and English education.
2. To remove misunderstandings between Muslims and the British government.
3. To bring about social reform among Muslims and eliminate superstitions.

This movement had a deep and lasting impact on Urdu language and literature.

• Development of Urdu Prose: Sir Syed and his associates (Hali, Shibli, Nazir Ahmad) gave ‘Maqsadiyat’ (Purposefulness) to Urdu literature. They used prose, rather than poetry, as the medium for propagating their ideas.
• Simplicity and Logic: They abandoned complex and ornate language in favor of a simple, direct, and logical writing style so that their social and educational messages could easily reach the people. They popularized the genre of the essay (mazmoon).
• Inclusion of New Subjects: The Aligarh Movement started the tradition of writing on biography, history, criticism, and social issues in Urdu literature. Hali’s ‘Hayat-e-Javed’ (a biography of Sir Syed) and ‘Muqaddama-e-Sher-o-Shayari’ (the first book of criticism in Urdu) are products of this movement.

In short, the Aligarh Movement took Urdu literature out of the world of fantasy and connected it to the realities of life, laying the foundation for modern Urdu prose.

Q6. (a) Name the author of ‘Nakat-ush-Shu’ara’.

Ans. The author (musannif) of ‘Nakat-ush-Shu’ara’ is Mir Taqi Mir . It is considered the first tazkira (biographical compendium) of Urdu poets.

Q6. (b) Whose composition is ‘Sab Ras’?

Ans. ‘Sab Ras’ is the composition (tasnif) of Mulla Wajhi . It is a masterpiece and an allegorical tale of Deccani Urdu prose.

Q6. (c) Write the names of any two poets of the Lucknow School.

Ans. Two prominent poets of the Lucknow School are:

1. Insha Allah Khan ‘Insha’
2. Shaikh Ghulam Hamdani ‘Mushafi’

(Other poets include Jur’at and Nasikh).

Q6. (d) Who was the founder of the Qutb Shahi Sultanate?

Ans. The founder (bani) of the Qutb Shahi Sultanate was Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk .

Q6. (e) Name the book by Muhammad Husain Azad from which the theory of the origin of the Urdu language is derived.

Ans. The name of Muhammad Husain Azad’s book is ‘Aab-e-Hayat’ , in which he presented the theory that the Urdu language originated from Braj Bhasha.