IGNOU MEDS-021 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU MEDS-021 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

IGNOU MEDS-021 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in English

Q1. Define tribal studies. Explain any five perspectives on tribal studies.

Ans. Tribal Studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that focuses on the history, society, culture, economy, politics, language, and contemporary issues of tribal or indigenous communities worldwide. It is not confined to anthropology alone but incorporates perspectives from various disciplines like sociology, history, political science, economics, literature, and law. Its primary aim is to understand tribal societies from their own perspectives and to challenge colonial and mainstream narratives that often depict them as ‘primitive’ or ‘backward’. The field emphasizes the importance of tribal rights, self-determination, and knowledge systems. Five major perspectives on tribal studies are as follows:

• Colonial/Administrative Perspective: This perspective viewed tribes as “primitive,” “exotic,” or a “problem” to be administered. Its main focus was on classification and documentation for control. British administrators and ethnographers (like Risley) adopted policies of either isolation or assimilation. The goal was to facilitate governance, not tribal welfare.
• Anthropological/Ethnographic Perspective: This involves the scientific study of tribal cultures, social structures, kinship, religion, and customs. Early anthropology often had a functionalist or structuralist approach. Scholars like S.C. Roy and G.S. Ghurye provided valuable data, but sometimes treated tribes as objects of study.
• Nationalist/Integrationist Perspective: After independence, the focus shifted to integrating tribes into the national mainstream. Thinkers like G.S. Ghurye argued that tribes were “backward Hindus” and should be assimilated for the sake of national unity. This perspective often overlooked tribal autonomy and their distinct identity.
• Marxist Perspective: This perspective analyzes tribal issues through the lens of class struggle, exploitation, and alienation from resources. It views tribes as an exploited class whose land, labour, and resources are expropriated by capitalist/feudal forces. It sees tribal movements as a form of resistance against this exploitation.
• Subaltern/Indigenous Perspective: This is the most recent and critical perspective. It seeks to understand tribal history and society from the “bottom-up,” giving voice to the tribals themselves. It critiques both colonial and nationalist narratives and emphasizes tribal agency, identity, rights ( Jal, Jangal, Jameen – Water, Forest, Land), and self-determination.

Q2. Discuss the constitutional safeguards and opportunities provided for the Scheduled Tribes after India’s independence.

Ans. The Constitution of India provides extensive safeguards to protect and promote the interests of Scheduled Tribes (STs) to address historical injustices and ensure their equitable development. These measures are both protective and developmental. Constitutional Safeguards: 1. Protective Safeguards:

• Article 15(4): Allows the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, including STs.
• Article 16(4) and 16(4A): Provide for reservation in public employment.
• Article 19(5): Empowers the state to impose reasonable restrictions on the freedom of movement and residence to protect the interests of any ST.
• Article 29: Guarantees the right to conserve their distinct language, script, and culture.
• Article 46 (Directive Principles of State Policy): Directs the state to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of STs and protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.
• Article 244 & 244A: Contain special provisions for the administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas through the Fifth and Sixth Schedules .

2. Political Safeguards:

• Article 330: Reservation of seats for STs in the Lok Sabha.
• Article 332: Reservation of seats for STs in the State Legislative Assemblies.
• Article 243D: Reservation of seats for STs in Panchayats.

3. Developmental Safeguards:

• Article 275(1): Provides for grants-in-aid from the Consolidated Fund of India to states for promoting the welfare of STs and for raising the level of administration of Scheduled Areas.
• Fifth Schedule: Applies to Scheduled Areas in most states. It establishes Tribes Advisory Councils (TACs) and gives the Governor special powers to regulate land transfer and money-lending.
• Sixth Schedule: Applies to tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. It provides for the creation of Autonomous District Councils (ADCs) with legislative, judicial, and administrative powers.

Opportunities:

Based on these constitutional provisions, the government has created several opportunities. The

National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST)

(Article 338A) is a statutory body that monitors these safeguards. Legislations like the

PESA Act (1996)

and the

Forest Rights Act (2006)

were enacted to empower Gram Sabhas and recognise the traditional rights of tribes. Furthermore, the Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP), Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS), and various scholarship schemes provide opportunities for their educational and economic development. However, the implementation of these safeguards and laws remains a major challenge, leading to persistent problems of land alienation, displacement, and marginalisation.

Q3. Discuss the characteristic features of any two tribes of Central India. What are the problems and challenges faced by the tribes of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh?

Ans. Central India, particularly Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, is home to a large proportion of India’s tribal population. The characteristics of two prominent tribes and their common problems are discussed below: Two Tribes of Central India: 1. The Gond Tribe:

• Features: The Gonds are one of the largest tribal groups in India. They are predominantly settled agriculturists. Their society is patriarchal and divided into various clans. They have their own language, ‘Gondi’, which belongs to the Dravidian family of languages. The Gonds have a rich cultural heritage, with ‘Gond painting’ being world-famous. They are nature worshippers, and their chief deity is ‘Persa Pen’. Traditionally, they had a youth dormitory system called the ‘Ghotul’.

2. The Baiga Tribe:

• Features: The Baigas are a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG). They consider themselves “children of the forest” and possess deep ecological knowledge. Traditionally, they practised shifting cultivation (‘bewar’) as they considered ploughing the earth a sin, akin to ‘scratching the breast of Mother Earth’. Their society is also patriarchal, and they worship nature and ancestors. The Baiga priest or shaman holds a position of high respect in the community.

Problems and Challenges faced by tribes of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh:

• Land Alienation and Displacement: This is the most severe problem. Large-scale acquisition of tribal land for mining projects (coal, iron ore, bauxite), big dams (like the Narmada Valley Project), and industrial plants has led to their mass displacement.
• Loss of Livelihood: Forest laws have restricted their traditional rights over forests, affecting the collection of minor forest produce and traditional agriculture. This has forced them into low-wage, insecure labour and trapped them in debt to moneylenders.
• Health and Nutrition: Malnutrition, high infant mortality rates, and diseases like malaria and tuberculosis are rampant in these areas. There is a severe lack of quality healthcare facilities in remote areas.
• Lack of Education: Literacy rates are low, and school dropout rates are very high. Language barriers, irrelevant curriculum, and a shortage of teachers are major educational challenges.
• Erosion of Cultural Identity: The influence of mainstream culture, the market, and missionaries threatens their traditional languages, customs, and social institutions.
• Left-Wing Extremism (Naxalism): This region is affected by Naxalism, where tribals are often caught between security forces and extremists, threatening their lives and livelihoods.

Q4. What are the causes of tribal migration? Explain the consequences of tribal migration.

Ans. Tribal migration is a complex phenomenon that has shifted from being voluntary and seasonal to increasingly being a form of distress migration. Both its causes and consequences are severe. Causes of Tribal Migration: The causes can be broadly divided into ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors. 1. Push Factors (Forcing them out of villages):

• Alienation from Resources: This is the most prominent cause. The acquisition of land and forests for development projects (dams, mines, industries), wildlife sanctuaries, and land grabbing by non-tribals destroys their very means of livelihood.
• Economic Distress: The decline of traditional agriculture, lack of employment opportunities in villages, and the pressure to repay debts to moneylenders.
• Environmental Degradation: Deforestation and climate change leading to a decline in agricultural productivity and availability of forest produce.
• Conflict and Insecurity: Insecurity in regions affected by conflicts like Naxalism forces people to flee.

2. Pull Factors (Attracting them to cities):

• Employment Opportunities: The hope of finding work in cities, at construction sites, in brick kilns, and on large agricultural farms (e.g., in Punjab, Gujarat).
• Better Wages: The expectation of earning more than they can in their villages.
• Social Mobility: The desire to escape the rigid social structures and poverty of the village.
• Access to Services: The lure of better education and health services in urban areas.

Consequences of Tribal Migration:

1. At the Destination (in Cities):

• Exploitation: Migrant workers are highly vulnerable. They work in the unorganised sector for low wages, long hours, and in poor conditions. They often fall victim to exploitation by contractors and employers and get trapped in bondage.
• Poor Living Conditions: They live in slums or makeshift shelters with no access to clean water, sanitation, or healthcare facilities.
• Social and Cultural Alienation: They face discrimination and are cut off from their community and cultural life, leading to a loss of identity and social support.
• Vulnerability of Women and Children: Women face double exploitation (work-related and gender-based). Children are deprived of education and become vulnerable to child labour and trafficking.

2. At the Source (in Villages):

• Family and Community Disruption: The absence of able-bodied men (and sometimes women) disrupts family life and agricultural activities. The elderly and children are left behind to face hardships.
• Erosion of Culture: Migration weakens traditional knowledge, practices, and social solidarity.

Q5. What is globalisation? Explain the impact of globalisation on tribals.

Ans. Globalisation is the process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. Its key features are liberalisation, privatisation, and the dominance of market forces. Impact of Globalisation on Tribals: The impact of globalisation on tribal communities has been highly complex and largely negative, though with some minor positive aspects. Negative Impacts:

• Accelerated Resource Grab: Globalisation has intensified the demand for natural resources (minerals, timber, water). This has led to a massive push for mining, industrialisation, and infrastructure projects in tribal areas, resulting in large-scale displacement and land alienation. The state often acts as a facilitator for Multinational Corporations (MNCs).
• Market Integration and Exploitation: Tribal economies, based on subsistence and reciprocity, have been forcibly integrated into the global market. This leads to the commodification of their resources (like Minor Forest Produce) for which they receive low prices, and the destruction of their traditional self-sufficient economies.
• Loss of Livelihoods and Food Security: Traditional livelihoods are destroyed. They are forced into the cash economy as unskilled wage labourers, making them vulnerable to market fluctuations. The focus on cash crops can undermine food security.
• Cultural Homogenisation: The influx of global media and consumer culture threatens to erode unique tribal languages, belief systems, and cultural practices. Traditional knowledge systems, especially related to ecology and medicine, are either lost or pirated (biopiracy).
• Weakening of Protective Laws: In the name of creating a favourable investment climate, governments often dilute environmental and protective laws (like PESA and FRA) that safeguard tribal rights.

Positive Impacts (Limited and often indirect):

• Increased Visibility and Networking: Globalisation has provided platforms (internet, international forums like the UN) for tribal activists to raise awareness about their issues globally and build solidarity with other indigenous groups worldwide.
• New Opportunities: For a very small, educated section of tribals, globalisation might offer new employment opportunities.

Conclusion:

Overall, globalisation has exacerbated the marginalisation and exploitation of tribal communities by prioritising corporate profit over their rights and well-being.

Q6. What are the challenges to tribal health? Discuss.

Ans. The health status of tribal communities in India is significantly worse than the general population. They face a “triple burden of disease”: communicable diseases, non-communicable diseases, and malnutrition, compounded by poor access to healthcare. The major challenges to tribal health are:

1. High Burden of Malnutrition:
   • Chronic under-nutrition is widespread, especially among children and women. Rates of stunting, wasting, and anaemia are very high.
   • The causes include poverty, loss of traditional food sources (forests, land), and a shift from diverse traditional diets to a dependency on Public Distribution System (PDS) rice/wheat.
2. Prevalence of Communicable Diseases:
   • The incidence of diseases like malaria, tuberculosis, and water-borne diseases (e.g., diarrhoea, cholera) is very high due to poor sanitation, unsafe drinking water, and environmental factors.
   • Genetic conditions like Sickle Cell Anaemia are also common in certain tribal groups.
3. Emergence of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs):
   • Rates of hypertension, diabetes, and cancer are increasing due to lifestyle changes, stress from displacement, and adoption of mainstream diets and substance use (alcohol, tobacco).
4. Inadequate Healthcare Infrastructure:
   • Physical Inaccessibility: Health centres (PHCs, Sub-centres) are often located far away, in difficult terrain with poor road connectivity.
   • Lack of Manpower: There is an acute shortage of doctors, nurses, and other health workers in tribal areas. Staff are often unwilling to serve in remote locations.
   • Lack of Facilities: Health centres are often poorly equipped, lack medicines, and have inadequate infrastructure.
5. Cultural and Social Barriers:
   • Language Barrier: Health workers often do not speak the local tribal language, leading to poor communication and mistrust.
   • Cultural Insensitivity: Mainstream healthcare services often lack understanding and respect for tribal culture, beliefs, and healing practices.
   • Dependence on Traditional Healers: Tribals often first consult their traditional healers (shamans). This can cause delays in seeking modern medical treatment for serious illnesses.
6. Financial Barriers: Poverty prevents them from affording travel costs, medicines, and private healthcare.

Conclusion:

Addressing tribal health requires a multi-pronged approach that goes beyond just medical intervention. It needs to address the social determinants of health like poverty, education, and food security, while also making the public health system more accessible, affordable, and culturally sensitive.

Q7. What are the salient features of the tribal movement? Explain any one tribal movement in Independent India.

Ans. Salient Features of Tribal Movements: Tribal movements have been a significant part of Indian history. Their main features are:

• Root Cause – Alienation: The root cause of almost all tribal movements is the systematic alienation of tribes from their jal, jangal, and jameen (water, forest, and land).
• Strong Identity: These movements are often driven by a strong assertion of ethnic identity and a desire to preserve their distinct culture and autonomy against the pressures of the mainstream.
• Target of Protest: The targets of protest are usually outsiders ( dikus ) – such as moneylenders, traders, contractors, landlords, and the state machinery that supports them (forest officials, police).
• Leadership: Leadership can range from traditional charismatic leaders to educated, modern leaders.
• Methods of Protest: These can range from peaceful demonstrations, petitions, and blockades to more militant and armed struggles.
• Evolving Goals: In the colonial period, movements were often aimed at driving out outsiders and restoring a perceived “golden past.” In independent India, the goals have shifted to demanding constitutional rights, political autonomy (e.g., separate states like Jharkhand), control over resources, and implementation of laws like PESA and FRA.

One Tribal Movement in Independent India: The Jharkhand Movement

Background:

The Chotanagpur plateau region (in present-day Jharkhand and parts of neighbouring states) is rich in minerals, but its native tribes (Santhal, Munda, Oraon, Ho) have faced centuries of exploitation and displacement.

Post-Independence Phase:

• After independence, the Adivasi Mahasabha, led by Jaipal Singh, was reconstituted as the Jharkhand Party in 1949. It demanded a separate state of Jharkhand for the tribals.
• Goals: The movement aimed to end the ‘internal colonialism’ by North Bihari elites, stop the exploitation of their resources, preserve their cultural identity, and ensure that development benefits reached them.
• Methods: The movement used constitutional methods like participating in elections, mass rallies, strikes ( bandhs ), and demonstrations.
• Leadership and Support: Initially led by Jaipal Singh, it later saw the rise of leaders like Shibu Soren. The Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) , formed in 1973 by Shibu Soren and others, combined cultural assertion with class-based agrarian radicalism, further strengthening the movement.
• Outcome: After decades of struggle, the Central Government conceded to the demand. The state of Jharkhand was finally created on 15 November 2000 .

Significance:

It is a prime example of a long, largely peaceful ethno-regional movement that successfully achieved its goal of a separate state. However, even after statehood, the core issues of displacement, resource control, and poverty persist.

Q8. Write short notes on any two of the following: (a) Colonial construct of tribe (b) Main characteristics of tribal family (c) Issues of tribal population of Southern India

Ans. (a) Colonial construct of tribe The concept of ‘tribe’ as used in India is largely a colonial construct. Before the British, communities had fluid and shifting identities, but the colonial state needed to classify its subjects for administrative convenience. Through operations like the Census and ethnographic surveys (e.g., by H.H. Risley), the British categorised certain groups as ‘tribes’. The criteria for classification were often arbitrary and based on colonial perceptions, such as: supposed isolation from mainstream Hindu society, ‘primitive’ customs, animist religion, and speaking a non-Sanskritic language. This process froze fluid identities into rigid, legally defined categories. The main purpose was administrative control. By defining tribes, the colonial state could create special laws and administrative zones (‘Excluded’ and ‘Partially Excluded’ Areas) to govern them. This construct created an artificial dichotomy between ‘tribe’ and ‘caste’ and institutionalised their marginalisation. The post-colonial Indian state inherited this category in the form of ‘Scheduled Tribes’. (b) Main characteristics of tribal family There is no single ‘tribal family’ type; it varies greatly across communities. However, some general characteristics can be noted:

• Importance of Kinship: The family is embedded within a larger kinship structure (clan, lineage), which is the most important unit of social organisation.
• Family Form: Although the nuclear family (husband, wife, unmarried children) is the most common form, extended families also exist among settled agriculturalist tribes.
• Descent and Authority: Most tribal families are patriarchal and patrilineal. Property, especially land, is usually inherited by sons. A few tribes, like the Khasis and Garos of Meghalaya, are matrilineal.
• Marriage Practices: Most tribes are endogamous (marry within the tribe) but exogamous at the clan level (marry outside their own clan). The practice of paying a ‘bride price’ is common. Divorce and remarriage are usually socially accepted.
• Status of Women: The status of women in tribal societies is generally considered better than in traditional caste society. They have more freedom in social life, but often lack political power and property rights in patriarchal societies.

(c) Issues of tribal population of Southern India

The tribal population in Southern India (Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana) is smaller and more scattered compared to Central and North-East India. They include groups like the Irulas, Todas, Kurumbas, and Chenchus. Many are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).

Major Issues:

• Extreme Land Alienation: Due to high pressure on land for plantations (coffee, tea, rubber), agriculture, and development projects, tribals have been almost completely dispossessed of their ancestral lands and forests.
• Bonded Labour: Having lost their land, many tribals are trapped in cycles of debt bondage, working as attached labourers for non-tribal landlords and plantation owners for generations.
• Loss of Livelihoods: Their traditional livelihoods based on hunting-gathering and shifting cultivation have been destroyed by forest laws and deforestation.
• Health and Nutrition Crisis: They suffer from severe malnutrition, genetic disorders, and poor access to healthcare.
• Weak Political Organisation: Being numerically small and scattered, they lack the political clout and organised movements seen in other parts of India, making it difficult to assert their rights.
• Ineffective Implementation of Laws: Protective laws like the Forest Rights Act (2006) have been very poorly implemented in the Southern states.