IGNOU MHI-105 Solved Question Paper PDF Download

IGNOU MHI-105 Previous Year Solved Question Paper in Hindi

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Q1. What are the common characteristic features shared by the Harappan settlements ?

Ans. The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, is renowned for its advanced urban culture and the remarkable uniformity found across its settlements. Archaeological evidence reveals several common characteristic features shared by Harappan settlements, suggesting an integrated socio-political and economic system. 1. Town Planning: The most distinctive feature of Harappan cities was their grid-pattern planning. Streets intersected at right angles, dividing the city into rectangular blocks. Almost all major sites, such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Kalibangan , consisted of a raised ‘citadel’ and a ‘lower town’. The citadel was likely for the ruling class and housed important public structures, while the lower town was where the common people resided. 2. Standardized Bricks: Baked and sun-dried bricks were used extensively in construction. These bricks were standardized in size across the entire civilization zone, with a consistent ratio of 1:2:4 (height:width:length) . This standardization is evidence of a strong central authority and advanced engineering skills. 3. Advanced Drainage System: Harappan cities are famous for their sophisticated drainage systems. Every house had a bathroom and a toilet, connected through covered drains to the main street drains. These drains were equipped with manholes at regular intervals for cleaning. This highlights the importance given to sanitation and public health. 4. Public Structures: Monumental structures have been found in the citadel areas. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is a significant example, probably used for ritualistic bathing. The Granaries found at Harappa suggest the storage of surplus grains on a large scale, pointing towards an organized tax-collection system. 5. Craft Specialization and Trade: Harappan settlements were important centers of craft production. This included bead-making (Chanhudaro, Lothal), shell-cutting (Balakot), and metallurgy. A vast trade network existed between these settlements and with distant civilizations like Mesopotamia, evidenced by the dockyard at Lothal and the discovery of Harappan seals in various sites. 6. Seals, Script, and Standardized Weights: Thousands of steatite seals have been found at Harappan sites, bearing animal motifs and an undeciphered script . These were likely used in trade and administration. Furthermore, a standardized system of weights and measures (e.g., cubical weights made of chert) was widely used, ensuring accuracy in commercial transactions. In summary, well-planned towns, advanced sanitation, standardized building materials and measures, and a thriving craft-based economy were the common features of Harappan settlements, which set them apart from other contemporary Bronze Age civilizations.

Q2. Give an account of role of trade in urban growth during c. 600-300 B. C. E.

Ans. The period of c. 600-300 BCE, often termed the era of ‘Second Urbanisation’ , witnessed the rise of cities and states in the Gangetic plains. Trade played a central and catalytic role in this urban growth. The expansion of commercial activities, along with agricultural surplus, technological advancements, and socio-political changes, provided a strong foundation for the development of urban centres. The role of trade can be understood through the following points: 1. Development of Trade Routes: This period saw the development of major trade routes, notably the Uttarapatha (from Taxila in the northwest to Tamralipti in the east) and the Dakshinapatha (connecting central India to the south). These routes connected different regions and facilitated the movement of goods, ideas, and people. Many important cities like Sravasti, Kausambi, Varanasi, Vaishali, and Ujjain were located on these routes, flourishing as trading posts and centres. 2. Emergence of a Monetary Economy: The expansion of trade was greatly boosted by the introduction of punch-marked coins . These coins, mostly made of silver, made commercial transactions easier and more efficient, overcoming the limitations of the barter system. The use of currency enabled large-scale trade and laid the foundation for a monetized economy, an essential component of urban life. 3. Craft Specialization and Markets: Urban centres became hubs of specialized crafts. Crafts like textile production (Varanasi), metallurgy, and pottery (especially the Northern Black Polished Ware – NBPW) flourished. These products were in demand in both local and distant markets. Trade gave these artisans access to raw materials and provided a market for their finished goods, leading to specialization and increased production. 4. Rise of a Merchant Class: The growth of trade gave rise to a powerful and wealthy merchant class, referred to in Pali texts as ‘Setthis’ and ‘Gahapatis’ . These merchants were not only economically influential but also played a significant role in social and political life. They patronized new religious movements like Buddhism and Jainism, which in turn, through their ethical codes, encouraged commercial activities. 5. State Formation and Patronage: The rise of the Mahajanapadas and the subsequent expansion of the Magadhan empire provided a secure environment for trade. Rulers encouraged trade by securing trade routes, levying taxes (like customs duties), and regulating the currency system. The revenue from trade was a crucial source of income for the state, used to maintain armies and administration, which in turn protected the urban centres. Thus, trade not only facilitated the exchange of material goods but also fostered cultural and intellectual contact between different regions. It created an economic dynamism that was indispensable for the emergence, growth, and vibrancy of urban centres.

Q3. Analyse the debates related to urban decay in early medieval India.

Ans. The status of urban centres in early medieval India (c. 600-1200 C.E.) has been a subject of intense debate among historians. The core of this debate is whether this period witnessed a widespread decay of post-Gupta cities. The debate can be broadly divided into two perspectives: the ‘urban decay’ thesis and the counter-thesis of ‘urban continuity and change’ . 1. The Urban Decay Thesis: The most prominent proponent of this theory is historian Ram Sharan Sharma (R.S. Sharma) . In his book ‘Indian Feudalism’, he argued that post-Gupta India experienced a severe urban crisis. According to him, this decay had several causes:

• Decline of Long-Distance Trade: Sharma argued that India’s lucrative foreign trade, particularly with the Roman Empire, collapsed. This adversely affected the cities that were dependent on trade activities.
• Paucity of Coinage: Citing archaeological evidence, he pointed to a scarcity of coins and a decline in metallic purity during this period. He termed this ‘demonetization’, which he saw as a sign of a slump in commercial activities.
• Self-Sufficient Rural Economy: Due to the decline in trade, the economy became increasingly agrarian and self-sufficient. Rulers began giving land grants ( agrahara and brahmadeya ), creating a feudal structure where production and consumption were localized, reducing the need for towns.

Sharma cited the archaeological excavations of several ancient cities like Pataliputra, Kausambi, and Vaishali, which show signs of decay in this period, to support his argument.

2. The Continuity and Change Thesis (Counter-arguments):

Several other historians have challenged R.S. Sharma’s thesis of widespread decay.

B.D. Chattopadhyaya

is a leading critic of this view. In ‘The Making of Early Medieval India’, he argued that Sharma’s model is too generalized and does not apply uniformly across the subcontinent.

• Regional Variations: Critics argue that while some old cities in the Gangetic plains might have been in decline, new urban centres were emerging in other parts of India, particularly in South India, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
• ‘Third Urbanisation’: Chattopadhyaya described this period not as one of ‘decay’ but as a ‘third urbanisation’ . He pointed out that new types of urban centres were developing, such as:
  • Temple towns: Centres like Thanjavur, which grew around large temples.
  • Administrative centres (Capitals): Which were the seats of local dynasties.
  • Market centres: Known as ‘Nagaram’ in South India.
• Continuity of Trade: Scholars like John S. Deyell have argued that foreign trade did not completely disappear but its nature changed. The Indian Ocean trade continued with the rise of the Arabs, and there were also strong trade links with Southeast Asia.

In conclusion, the urban landscape in early medieval India was complex. It would be an oversimplification to state that there was a uniform urban decay across the country. While some ancient political and commercial centres lost their prominence, many new types of urban centres emerged at a regional level. The period was less one of ‘decay’ and more one of ‘restructuring and transformation’ of urban patterns, reflecting the rise of a feudal and regionalized polity.

Q4. Write a note on the non-agricultural taxes imposed by the Mughal state.

Ans. While land revenue was the mainstay of the Mughal Empire’s income, the state also developed a complex structure of non-agricultural taxes to meet its financial needs. These taxes were collectively known as ‘sair’ or ‘sair-jihat’ , and they were levied on trade, commerce, production, and individuals. The major non-agricultural taxes imposed by the Mughal state were as follows: 1. Duties on Trade and Commerce: This was the most significant source of non-agricultural income. It included:

• Customs Duties: These were levied on imported and exported goods at the ports. The rates varied; 2.5% from Muslim traders, 5% from Hindu traders, and often slightly higher rates from foreign (e.g., European) traders. Major ports like Surat, Hughli, and Cambay generated substantial revenue from customs.
• Transit Duties ( Rahdari ): This was collected on goods in transit at roads, bridges, and river ferries. Although emperors like Akbar and Jahangir issued farmans to abolish it, local officials often continued to collect it, causing hardship to merchants.

2. Taxes on Markets and Production:

Taxes were levied on almost every commodity sold in the markets (

mandis

) in towns and cities. These were known as

‘market dues’

. Additionally, there were taxes on various crafts and industries. For example, taxes were imposed on textile production, salt manufacturing, and liquor distilling. Artisans and professionals, such as weavers and oil-pressers, also had to pay a tax on their income or output.

3. Personal and Other Taxes:

• Jizya: This was a poll tax levied on non-Muslims ( zimmis ). Akbar had abolished it in 1564, but Aurangzeb reimposed it in 1679 . It was a source of income for the state as well as a controversial and symbolic tax.
• Pilgrimage Tax: This was levied on Hindus for visiting their holy places. Akbar had abolished this tax as well, as part of his policy of Sulh-i-Kul .
• Khams: This was the state’s share (1/5th) of the spoils of war or of wealth from mines and treasure troves.
• Khana-shumari (House Tax): In some areas, a tax on houses was also levied, though this was not universal.

4. Monopolies:

The state also earned income by establishing its monopoly over the production or trade of certain commodities. For example,

saltpetre

, a key ingredient for gunpowder, and certain varieties of indigo were often a state monopoly.

In essence, the Mughal taxation system was not limited to land. Through the ‘sair’ taxes, the state tapped into revenue from almost every non-agricultural sector of the economy—trade, production, and personal income. These taxes played a crucial role in sustaining the financial might of the empire, although their rates and methods of collection often varied with local officials and the policies of the ruling emperor.

Q5. Write short notes on any two of the following in about 250 words each : (a) Nagaram (b) Indo-Roman trade (c) Famines in medieval India (d) Artisan guilds

Ans. (a) Nagaram In the context of early medieval South India, especially during the Chola empire, the ‘Nagaram’ was a significant institution. It essentially referred to a market, a commercial centre, or a small town that was primarily focused on trade and craft production activities. They were distinct from the agrarian settlements (which were governed by the ‘Ur’ or ‘Sabha’). The administration of the Nagaram was managed by an autonomous corporate body or assembly called the ‘Nagarattar’ . This assembly was mainly composed of merchants, traders, and financiers. The Nagarattar were responsible for the internal affairs of their town, such as the collection of local taxes, maintenance of temples, and the resolution of commercial disputes. They also acted as a crucial link in collecting taxes for the state. The Nagarams were important nodes in the long-distance trade network. They collected agricultural produce and handicrafts from the rural hinterland and channelled them to larger trading centres and ports. Simultaneously, they also distributed goods brought in from outside regions. Chola inscriptions mention numerous Nagarams, highlighting their vital role in the kingdom’s economy. These centres are a prime example of the concept of ‘Third Urbanisation’ proposed by B.D. Chattopadhyaya, demonstrating that the early medieval period was not just an era of urban decay, but also of the rise of new types of urban centres. (b) Indo-Roman Trade The Indo-Roman trade , which was at its peak from about the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE, was one of the most significant commercial networks of the ancient world. This trade connected the Indian subcontinent with the Roman Empire through direct maritime routes, in which the discovery of the monsoon winds played a crucial role. Information about this trade comes mainly from archaeological evidence and classical texts. Works like the ‘Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’ (written by an anonymous Greek sailor) and Pliny the Elder’s ‘Natural History’ are key sources. Several port cities on the western and eastern coasts of India, such as Muziris (Kerala), Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu) , and Barbaricum (Sindh), were hubs for this trade. India primarily exported luxury goods, which included:

• Spices: Especially black pepper, which was also called ‘Yavanapriya’.
• Textiles: Fine muslin and cotton fabrics.
• Precious stones: Such as pearls, beryls, and diamonds.
• Other items like ivory and exotic animals.

In return, India imported wine, olive oil, glassware, pottery (like Amphorae and Arretine ware) and, most importantly,

gold and silver coins

from the Roman Empire. Pliny lamented the massive drain of Roman gold to India in exchange for Indian luxury goods. The discovery of large hoards of Roman coins in South India confirms the intensity and scale of this trade. This trade not only enriched the regions involved economically but also fostered cultural exchange.